Journal Description
Water
Water
is a peer-reviewed, open access journal on water science and technology, including the ecology and management of water resources, and is published semimonthly online by MDPI. Water collaborates with the International Conference on Flood Management (ICFM) and Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI). In addition, the American Institute of Hydrology (AIH), The Polish Limnological Society (PLS) and Japanese Society of Physical Hydrology (JSPH) are affiliated with Water and their members receive a discount on the article processing charges.
- Open Access— free for readers, with article processing charges (APC) paid by authors or their institutions.
- High Visibility: indexed within Scopus, SCIE (Web of Science), Ei Compendex, GEOBASE, GeoRef, PubAg, AGRIS, CAPlus / SciFinder, Inspec, and other databases.
- Journal Rank: JCR - Q2 (Water Resources) / CiteScore - Q1 (Water Science and Technology)
- Rapid Publication: manuscripts are peer-reviewed and a first decision is provided to authors approximately 16.5 days after submission; acceptance to publication is undertaken in 2.9 days (median values for papers published in this journal in the second half of 2023).
- Recognition of Reviewers: reviewers who provide timely, thorough peer-review reports receive vouchers entitling them to a discount on the APC of their next publication in any MDPI journal, in appreciation of the work done.
- Companion journals for Water include: GeoHazards and Hydrobiology.
Impact Factor:
3.4 (2022);
5-Year Impact Factor:
3.5 (2022)
Latest Articles
Ensemble Forecasts of Extreme Flood Events with Weather Forecasts, Land Surface Modeling and Deep Learning
Water 2024, 16(7), 990; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16070990 (registering DOI) - 29 Mar 2024
Abstract
Integrating numerical weather forecasts that provide ensemble precipitation forecasts, land surface hydrological modeling that resolves surface and subsurface hydrological processes, and artificial intelligence techniques that correct the forecast bias, known as the “meteo-hydro-AI” approach, has emerged as a popular flood forecast method. However,
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Integrating numerical weather forecasts that provide ensemble precipitation forecasts, land surface hydrological modeling that resolves surface and subsurface hydrological processes, and artificial intelligence techniques that correct the forecast bias, known as the “meteo-hydro-AI” approach, has emerged as a popular flood forecast method. However, its performance during extreme flood events across different interval basins has received less attention. Here, we evaluated the meteo-hydro-AI approach for forecasting extreme flood events from headwater to downstream sub-basins in the Luo River basin during 2010–2017, with forecast lead times up to 7 days. The proposed meteo-hydro approach based on ECMWF weather forecasts and the Conjunctive Surface-Subsurface Process version 2 land surface model with a spatial resolution of 1 km captured the flood hydrographs quite well. Compared with the ensemble streamflow prediction (ESP) approach based on initial conditions, the meteo-hydro approach increased the Nash-Sutcliffe efficiency of streamflow forecasts at the three outlet stations by 0.27–0.82, decreased the root-mean-squared-error by 22–49%, and performed better in reliability and discrimination. The meteo-hydro-AI approach showed marginal improvement, which suggested further evaluations with larger samples of extreme flood events should be carried out. This study demonstrated the potential of the integrated meteo-hydro-AI approach for ensemble forecasting of extreme flood events.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Flood and Drought Disaster Forecasting and Early Warnings through Integrating Hydrological and Hydrodynamic Models)
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Open AccessArticle
Functional Traits Drive the Changes in Diversity and Composition of Benthic Invertebrate Communities in Response to Hydrological Regulation
by
Anna Marino, Francesca Bona, Stefano Fenoglio and Tiziano Bo
Water 2024, 16(7), 989; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16070989 (registering DOI) - 29 Mar 2024
Abstract
Of all the environmental elements that influence the biological communities of rivers, water flow characteristics are undoubtedly the most important. Unfortunately, natural hydrological characteristics are increasingly threatened by human activities, especially in alpine or high mountain areas where there are numerous hydropower plants.
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Of all the environmental elements that influence the biological communities of rivers, water flow characteristics are undoubtedly the most important. Unfortunately, natural hydrological characteristics are increasingly threatened by human activities, especially in alpine or high mountain areas where there are numerous hydropower plants. In this study, we analysed the impact of hydrological alterations on the macroinvertebrate community of a lowland river in NW Italy. Specifically, we analysed the macroinvertebrate communities of an unaffected site by comparing them with those of a site subject to hydrological alteration. We adopted an approach that is not only taxonomic but also functional, allowing us to study a component of biodiversity that is generally less known. Our results show that the flow-altered site hosted a benthic community with lower species and functional diversity than the control site. Interestingly, we also detected a number of significant differences between the summer and autumn samples. In particular, examination of community-weighted mean (CWM) trait values reveals significant variation in body size, voltinism, substrate, locomotion, feeding habits and other traits between sites and seasons. The integration of taxonomic and functional approaches provides a comprehensive understanding of how human-induced hydrological variations can affect aquatic biodiversity and ecological functions.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Managing Impacts on Baseflows in Streams and the Associated Impacts on Ecosystems and Water Quality)
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Open AccessReview
Advances in High-Performance Nanofiltration Membranes Facilitated by Two-Dimensional Materials
by
Sichu Xing, Songhang Du, Yingyue Huang, Xingqi Qi and Minghao Sui
Water 2024, 16(7), 988; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16070988 - 28 Mar 2024
Abstract
Nanofiltration membranes (NF) have been widely used in the field of water treatment because of their advantages of high separation precision, easy operation, and no phase change. Conventional NF membranes, ensnared by the “trade-off” effect, grapple with the challenge of achieving breakthroughs in
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Nanofiltration membranes (NF) have been widely used in the field of water treatment because of their advantages of high separation precision, easy operation, and no phase change. Conventional NF membranes, ensnared by the “trade-off” effect, grapple with the challenge of achieving breakthroughs in both separation efficacy and stability. Recent advancements in research have unveiled the potential of nanoscale porous two-dimensional (2D) materials, characterized by their atomic thinness and superlative mechanical strength. These materials, crafted into nanofiltration membranes as thin as a single atom, boast minimal transport resistance and maximal permeation flux, thereby facilitating the highly discerning transport of water, and are heralded as the quintessential materials for fabricating ultra-thin membranes. This comprehensive review delves into the latest advancements in the research on 2D material NF membranes. A range of performance aspects related to 2D-material-modified NF membranes, including water flux, permeability, pollutant retention rates, and anti-pollution performance, were evaluated, and this review covers the impact of and major approaches to optimizing membrane performance in recent years, providing valuable insights into potential future developments in NF membranes.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Wastewater Treatment and Reuse)
Open AccessArticle
Assessment of Water Productivity and Economic Viability of Greenhouse-Grown Tomatoes under Soilless and Soil-Based Cultivations
by
Suliman Ali Al-Khateeb, Faisal Ibrahim Zeineldin, Nagat Ahmed Elmulthum, Khalid Mohammed Al-Barrak, Muhammad Naeem Sattar, Tagelsir Ahmed Mohammad and Akbar S. Mohmand
Water 2024, 16(7), 987; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16070987 - 28 Mar 2024
Abstract
Water scarcity has necessitated the adoption of water-saving techniques in both protected and non-protected farming. This study aimed to evaluate the performance of a water-saving soilless cultivation technique and compare it to conventional soil-based cultivation in protected farming. The soilless technique utilized local
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Water scarcity has necessitated the adoption of water-saving techniques in both protected and non-protected farming. This study aimed to evaluate the performance of a water-saving soilless cultivation technique and compare it to conventional soil-based cultivation in protected farming. The soilless technique utilized local gravel and a mixture of peat moss, humin-substrate, and perlite in a 4:3:1.5 ratio. During the tomato growth cycle, three irrigation regimes were imposed using drip irrigation: 8 Lh−1 design discharge (D1) emitters, 6 Lh−1 design discharge (D0.75) emitters, and 4 Lh−1 design discharge (D0.5) emitters for both cultivation methods. Vegetative growth, fruit yield, and water consumption were measured and water productivity was determined. Additionally, an economic assessment was conducted by estimating and comparing economic coefficients for both cultivation methods. Estimated coefficients included revenues, net profit, benefit–cost ratio, breakeven levels of production and prices, revenues over variable cost, and revenues on investment. The tomato fruit yield under soil-based cultivation surpassed the yield under soilless cultivation. Water productivity under soilless cultivation was nearly double (24.3 kg m−3) that of soil-based cultivation (15.5 kg m−3). Soilless cultivation saved 50% of the irrigation water applied by the conventional soil-based method, conserving energy and protecting the soil from deterioration. Revenues and net profits, driven by higher yield and lower variable costs, favored soil-based cultivation. The economic assessment demonstrated that both cultivation methods were economically viable. However, the soil-based cultivation method was more profitable due to its higher fruit yield. Overall, the results of this study suggest that the soilless cultivation technique is a feasible option for water-saving cultivation. However, the soil-based cultivation method remains more profitable due to its superior fruit yield. The soilless cultivation technique offers significant water savings but needs further improvements to achieve comparable economic returns to traditional farming.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Water Use/Footprint for Agricultural Products during Production, Trade and Consumption Processes, Volume II)
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Open AccessArticle
Statistical Analysis and Scenario Modeling of Non-Stationary Runoff Change in the Loess Plateau: A Novel Application of the Generalized Additive Model in Location, Scale and Shape
by
Shuqi Zhang, Tong Zhi, Hongbo Zhang, Chiheng Dang, Congcong Yao, Dengrui Mu, Fengguang Lyu, Yu Zhang and Shangdong Liu
Water 2024, 16(7), 986; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16070986 - 28 Mar 2024
Abstract
The hydrological series in the Loess Plateau region has exhibited shifts in trend, mean, and/or variance as the environmental conditions have changed, indicating a departure from the assumption of stationarity. As the variations accumulate, the compound effects caused by the driving variables on
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The hydrological series in the Loess Plateau region has exhibited shifts in trend, mean, and/or variance as the environmental conditions have changed, indicating a departure from the assumption of stationarity. As the variations accumulate, the compound effects caused by the driving variables on runoff variations grow complex and interactive, posing a substantial risk to water security and the promotion of high-quality development in regions or river basins. This study focuses on the Tuwei River Basin in the Loess Plateau, which experiences significant changes in vegetation coverage and minimal human disturbance, and examines the cross-driving relationship between the runoff change and its driving variables (including hydrometeorological and environmental variables). A quantitative statistical analysis method based on the GAMLSS is then developed to estimate the interacting effects of changes in the driving variables and their contribution to runoff changes. Finally, various anticipated scenarios are used to simulate the changes in driving variables and runoff disturbances. The findings indicate the following: (1) The developed GU, LO, and NO distribution-based GAMLSSs provide a notable advantage in effectively capturing the variations in groundwater storage variables, actual evapotranspiration, and underlying surface parameters, as well as accurately estimating the impacts of other relevant variables. (2) The precipitation and groundwater storage variables showed predominantly positive contributions to the runoff change, but actual evapotranspiration had an adverse effect. The changes in underlying surface parameters, particularly since 2000, increase actual evapotranspiration, while decreasing groundwater storage, resulting in a progressive decrease in runoff as their contribution grows. (3) The scenario simulation results reveal that alterations to the underlying surface have a substantial influence on the evolution of runoff in the Tuwei River Basin. Additionally, there are cross-effects between the impact of various driving variables on runoff, potentially compounding the complexity of inconsistent changes in runoff sequences.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Water Conservancy and Hydropower Engineering: Modelling, Performances, Optimization Application and Environmental Effects)
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Open AccessArticle
A Comparison of Greenhouse Gas Emission Patterns in Different Water Levels in Peatlands
by
Chengcheng Peng, Hengfei Li, Nan Yang and Mingzhi Lu
Water 2024, 16(7), 985; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16070985 - 28 Mar 2024
Abstract
Peatlands store large amounts of carbon in wetland ecosystems. The hydrological conditions within peatlands are important factors that affect the biochemical cycle and patterns of greenhouse gas emissions in these peatlands. This study was carried out in Changbai Mountain Jinchuan peatland to investigate
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Peatlands store large amounts of carbon in wetland ecosystems. The hydrological conditions within peatlands are important factors that affect the biochemical cycle and patterns of greenhouse gas emissions in these peatlands. This study was carried out in Changbai Mountain Jinchuan peatland to investigate variations in carbon dioxide and methane emissions in peat swamps that have undergone distinct saturation conditions. Three peatland types (high water levels (S1); medium water levels (S2); low water levels (S3)) at different flood depths were selected as specific sampling points. The static box and gas chromatography methods were used at different time periods (6:00; 12:00; and 18:00) from July to September. The discharge flux of CO2 and CH4 slowly increased with the increase in the water level. The results indicate similarity in the fluctuation trends between the fluxes of CO2 and CH4 in S1 and S2 to the fluctuations of water levels. During the entire growth season, the flux range of CO2 and CH4 was −695.329~859.907 mg m2h−1 and 259.981~147.155 mg m2h−1, respectively. Furthermore, there was variation in mutation characteristics between two gases, the CO2 exhibited larger mutation range (−7.08~3.40)than CH4 (−1.79~1.26). In terms of daily flux changes, CO2 showed an upward trend, while CH4 had a downward trend. These results indicate variations in saturation conditions tend to affect discharge of greenhouse gases, with subsequent effects on climate change. This study highlights potential theoretical support to reduce anthropogenic activities on peatlands. This can be achieved by undertaking measures to conserve peatlands and explore mitigation measures to minimize greenhouse gas emissions and hence impacts of climate change.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Restoration of Wetlands for Climate Change Mitigation)
Open AccessArticle
Experimental Study of Water Vapor Adsorption on Bare Soil and Gravel Surfaces in an Arid Region of Ningxia, China
by
Qingtao Zhang, Heng Wang, Zhiqiang Wang, Haoxuan Xie, Tuo Chen and Shuai Guan
Water 2024, 16(7), 984; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16070984 - 28 Mar 2024
Abstract
Water vapor adsorption on soil, a crucial non-rainfall water resource in arid regions, warrants further experimental investigation, particularly on two typical land surfaces: bare soil and gravel. This study examined the formation characteristics and influencing factors of vapor adsorption in an arid region
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Water vapor adsorption on soil, a crucial non-rainfall water resource in arid regions, warrants further experimental investigation, particularly on two typical land surfaces: bare soil and gravel. This study examined the formation characteristics and influencing factors of vapor adsorption in an arid region of Northwestern China. Observations and analyses were conducted on adsorption and evaporation measurements taken by two small weighing lysimeters (SLSs); soil temperature at a depth of 5 cm; surface temperature; relative humidity; and air temperature at a height of 30 cm above the ground from 2019 to 2020. The adsorbed water in this area was more abundant at night and less abundant during the day, with a stable nightly adsorption rate of 0.013 mm/h. Adsorption was more frequent in spring and winter (from January to June and November to December), accounting for about 90% of the total annual adsorption. In 2019 and 2020, the ratio values of adsorption to evaporation were 0.16 and 0.10 for bare soil, and 0.10 and 0.12 for gravel, respectively. Adsorption was more likely to occur when the soil moisture content was less than 13%; the highest adsorption frequency was close to 20% when the RH was between 75 and 95%; low soil temperatures were more conducive to the occurrence of adsorption. The effect of temperature differences (TaTs) on adsorption was stronger than that of relative humidity. The adsorption frequency generally showed a bimodal change with increasing temperature difference, but the effect of temperature differences was less effective for gravel than bare soil. When the relative humidity was high and the temperature difference was weakly positive, the maximum adsorption intensity could reach 0.18 mm/h.
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Open AccessArticle
Predicting Epipelic Algae Transport in Open Channels: A Flume Study to Quantify Transport Capacity and Guide Flow Management
by
Li Pan, Guoying Wu, Mingwu Zhang, Yuan Zhang, Zhongmei Wang and Zhiqiang Lai
Water 2024, 16(7), 983; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16070983 - 28 Mar 2024
Abstract
The functionality of rivers and open diversion channels can be severely impacted when the epipelic algae group that grows on concrete inclined side walls, which are typical of urban rivers, joins the water flow. This study aims to increase the long-distance transport of
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The functionality of rivers and open diversion channels can be severely impacted when the epipelic algae group that grows on concrete inclined side walls, which are typical of urban rivers, joins the water flow. This study aims to increase the long-distance transport of epipelic algae groups in urban rivers and open diversion channels through flow scheduling and to anticipate their transport capacity with respect to water flow. Current research on contaminant movement is primarily based on mathematical models with limited data on flake epipelic algae types. A sidewall epipelic algae group in a flume was modeled using a generalized hydrodynamic experimental approach. Hydraulic experiments were conducted to study the physical movement form and transport capacity of the suspended epipelic algae group. This study suggests that the epipelic algae group will create transport movement without sedimentation when the velocity reaches 80–85% of the main flow velocity and settle to the bottom when it falls below 80%. This research can support the mathematical modelling of hydrodynamic transport, provide a research foundation for long-distance transport, and estimate potential gathering places and sediment amounts under different water flow conditions.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Hydraulic and Water Resources Research)
Open AccessArticle
Extent and Sources of Heavy Metal Pollution from Discharging Rivers in the Bohai Region, China
by
Ran Kang, Shanyu Zhou, Tingting Chen, Huiying Yin, Lulu Si, Caiyun Deng and Hermann Kaufmann
Water 2024, 16(7), 982; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16070982 - 28 Mar 2024
Abstract
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Studies have investigated heavy metal (HM) contamination in the Bohai Sea, but primarily in seawater and associated sediments, or in single rivers. For the first time, 31 major rivers discharging into the Bohai Sea were analyzed, along with 27 uniformly distributed coastal seawater
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Studies have investigated heavy metal (HM) contamination in the Bohai Sea, but primarily in seawater and associated sediments, or in single rivers. For the first time, 31 major rivers discharging into the Bohai Sea were analyzed, along with 27 uniformly distributed coastal seawater samples and selected invertebrates. The elements measured were As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb, V, and Zn. We calculated the ‘geo-accumulation index’, the ‘metal enrichment factor’, and the ‘contamination factor’, coupled with the ‘pollution load index’, and our findings suggested low-grade HM pollution, although two conspicuous associations of elements were found to stand out in particular: One is a combination of As, Cu, Cr, and V in seawater samples that may indicate pollution from intensive ship traffic. The other shows a significant pattern of Cr, Pb, and Zn in water samples from rivers discharging between Yantai and Weihai on the Shandong Peninsula at the south edge of the Bohai Sea. This is primarily a farming area, with a moderate share of industrial enterprises. Investigations including fertilizers and pesticides point to agricultural practices and textile printing/chrome tanneries as the causes of contamination. Overall, a significant decline was found in the HM load in the rivers, apart from those discharging into the Yellow Sea section.
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Open AccessArticle
Infiltration-Based Variability of Soil Erodibility Parameters Evaluated with the Jet Erosion Test
by
Aaron A. Akin, Gia Nguyen and Aleksey Y. Sheshukov
Water 2024, 16(7), 981; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16070981 - 28 Mar 2024
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Soil erosion by water on agricultural hillslopes leads to numerous environmental problems including reservoir sedimentation, loss of agricultural land, declines in drinking water quality, and requires deep understanding of underlying physical processes for better mitigation. It is imperative to accurately predict soil erosion
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Soil erosion by water on agricultural hillslopes leads to numerous environmental problems including reservoir sedimentation, loss of agricultural land, declines in drinking water quality, and requires deep understanding of underlying physical processes for better mitigation. It is imperative to accurately predict soil erosion caused by overland flow processes so that soil conservation efforts can be undertaken proactively before large-scale sedimentation problems arise. Soil detachment is often described by the excess shear stress equation that contains two physical soil erodibility parameters, erodibility coefficient, and critical shear stress. These parameters are normally assumed to be constant but can change across varying soil texture classes as well as during surface runoff events due to changes in soil cohesion and potential dependency on soil moisture content. These changes may significantly affect soil erosion rates at the field and watershed scale. In this study, the erodibility parameters of three soil types (sandy loam, clay loam, and silty clay loam) were analyzed using a laboratory mini-Jet Erosion Test (JET) to determine the effect of soil sample infiltration and moisture condition. Results from the experiments depicted a dynamic relationship between the soil erodibility parameters and amount of infiltrated mass of water. Data analysis displayed that for soils of different texture critical shear stress exhibited local minimum with higher values for very dry and saturated soils, while erodibility coefficient tended to increase with the increase of mass of soil water. Utilizing these dynamic soil erodibility parameters did not result in a significant difference in soil erosion rates when compared to using the averaged soil erodibility parameters taken from the experiment but the range of potential erosion rates increases with the increase of applied sheer stress to soil surface. The erosion rates with the experiment-based coefficients were found to be higher than with the baseline WEPP-based coefficients. These results highlight the importance of evaluating the effect of intrastorm dependent factors during surface runoff events, such as antecedent soil moisture content, time to peak from the start of runoff, soil cohesion, etc., on soil erodibility parameters to accurately calculate erosion rates, especially for initially dry soils or during earlier stages of surface runoff when critical shear stresses were highly affected. Further assessment of such factors with JET or other laboratory and field tests is recommended.
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Open AccessArticle
Post-Analysis of Daniel Extreme Flood Event in Thessaly, Central Greece: Practical Lessons and the Value of State-of-the-Art Water-Monitoring Networks
by
Elias Dimitriou, Andreas Efstratiadis, Ioanna Zotou, Anastasios Papadopoulos, Theano Iliopoulou, Georgia-Konstantina Sakki, Katerina Mazi, Evangelos Rozos, Antonios Koukouvinos, Antonis D. Koussis, Nikos Mamassis and Demetris Koutsoyiannis
Water 2024, 16(7), 980; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16070980 - 28 Mar 2024
Abstract
Storm Daniel initiated on 3 September 2023, over the Northeastern Aegean Sea, causing extreme rainfall levels for the following four days, reaching an average of about 360 mm over the Peneus basin, in Thessaly, Central Greece. This event led to extensive floods, with
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Storm Daniel initiated on 3 September 2023, over the Northeastern Aegean Sea, causing extreme rainfall levels for the following four days, reaching an average of about 360 mm over the Peneus basin, in Thessaly, Central Greece. This event led to extensive floods, with 17 human lives lost and devastating environmental and economic impacts. The automatic water-monitoring network of the HIMIOFoTS National Research Infrastructure captured the evolution of the phenomenon and the relevant hydrometeorological (rainfall, water stage, and discharge) measurements were used to analyse the event’s characteristics. The results indicate that the average rainfall’s return period was up to 150 years, the peak flow close to the river mouth reached approximately 1950 m3/s, and the outflow volume of water to the sea was 1670 hm3. The analysis of the observed hydrographs across Peneus also provided useful lessons from the flood-engineering perspective regarding key modelling assumptions and the role of upstream retentions. Therefore, extending and supporting the operation of the HIMIOFoTS infrastructure is crucial to assist responsible authorities and local communities in reducing potential damages and increasing the socioeconomic resilience to natural disasters, as well as to improve the existing knowledge with respect to extreme flood-simulation approaches.
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(This article belongs to the Topic Application of Smart Technologies in Water Resources Management)
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A Real-Time Prediction Approach to Deep Soil Moisture Combining GNSS-R Data and a Water Movement Model in Unsaturated Soil
by
Xiaotian Luo, Cong Yin, Yueqiang Sun, Weihua Bai, Wei Li and Hongqing Song
Water 2024, 16(7), 979; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16070979 - 28 Mar 2024
Abstract
Deep soil moisture data have wide applications in fields such as engineering construction and agricultural production. Therefore, achieving the real-time monitoring of deep soil moisture is of significant importance. Current soil monitoring methods face challenges in conducting the large-scale, real-time monitoring of deep
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Deep soil moisture data have wide applications in fields such as engineering construction and agricultural production. Therefore, achieving the real-time monitoring of deep soil moisture is of significant importance. Current soil monitoring methods face challenges in conducting the large-scale, real-time monitoring of deep soil moisture. This paper innovatively proposes a real-time prediction approach to deep soil moisture combining GNSS-R data and a water movement model in unsaturated soil. This approach, built upon surface soil moisture data retrieved from GNSS-R signal inversion, integrates soil–water characteristics and soil moisture values at a depth of 1 m. By employing a deep soil moisture content prediction model, it provides predictions of soil moisture at depths from 0 to 1 m, thus realizing the large-scale, real-time dynamic monitoring of deep soil moisture. The proposed approach was validated in a study area in Goodwell, Texas County, Oklahoma, USA. Predicted values of soil moisture at a randomly selected location in the study area at depths of 0.1 m, 0.2 m, 0.5 m, and 1 m were compared with ground truth values for the period from 25 October to 19 November 2023. The results indicated that the relative error ( ) was controlled within the range of ±14%. The mean square error (MSE) ranged from 2.90 × to 1.88 × , and the coefficient of determination ( ) ranged from 82.45% to 89.88%, indicating an overall high level of fitting between the predicted values and ground truth data. This validates the feasibility of the proposed approach, which has the potential to play a crucial role in agricultural production, geological disaster management, engineering construction, and heritage site preservation.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Application of Geophysical Methods for Hydrogeology)
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Open AccessArticle
A Method for Identifying Gross Errors in Dam Monitoring Data
by
Liqiu Chen, Chongshi Gu, Sen Zheng and Yanbo Wang
Water 2024, 16(7), 978; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16070978 - 28 Mar 2024
Abstract
Real and effective monitoring data are crucial in assessing the structural safety of dams. Gross errors, resulting from manual mismeasurement, instrument failure, or other factors, can significantly impact the evaluation process. It is imperative to eliminate such anomalous data. However, existing methods for
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Real and effective monitoring data are crucial in assessing the structural safety of dams. Gross errors, resulting from manual mismeasurement, instrument failure, or other factors, can significantly impact the evaluation process. It is imperative to eliminate such anomalous data. However, existing methods for detecting gross errors in concrete dam deformation often focus on analyzing a single monitoring effect quantity. This can lead to sudden jumps in values of effect quantity caused by changes in environmental variables being mistakenly identified as gross error. Therefore, a method based on Fuzzy C-Means clustering algorithm (FCM) partitioning and density clustering algorithm (Ordering Points To Identify the Clustering Structure, OPTICS) combined with Local Outlier Factor (LOF) algorithm for gross error identification is proposed. Firstly, the FCM algorithm is used to achieve the division of measurement point areas. Then, the OPTICS and LOF algorithms are jointly utilized to determine the gross errors. Finally, the real gross errors are identified by comparing the time of occurrence of the gross errors at measurement points in the same area. Through the case study, the results indicate that the method can effectively identify spurious, gross errors in the monitoring effect quantity caused by environmental mutations. The accuracy of gross error detection is significantly improved, and the rate of misjudgment of gross errors is reduced.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Remote Sensing, Artificial Intelligence and Deep Learning in Hydraulic Structure Safety Monitoring)
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Open AccessArticle
Integrating Uncertainty in Performance Assessment of Water Distribution Networks by Scenario Building
by
Joana Carneiro, Dália Loureiro, Marta Cabral and Dídia Covas
Water 2024, 16(7), 977; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16070977 - 28 Mar 2024
Abstract
This paper presents and demonstrates a novel scenario-building methodology that integrates contextual and future time uncertainty into the performance assessment of water distribution networks (WDNs). A three-step approach is proposed: (i) System context analysis, identifying the main key factors that impact the WDN
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This paper presents and demonstrates a novel scenario-building methodology that integrates contextual and future time uncertainty into the performance assessment of water distribution networks (WDNs). A three-step approach is proposed: (i) System context analysis, identifying the main key factors that impact the WDN performance; (ii) Scenario definition, identifying the implicated WDN variables, describing its possible evolution, and conjugating them to further establish the reference scenario and the two most relevant and opposite ones; and (iii) Scenario modelling, simulating the WDN behaviour for those scenarios. The obtained spatial and temporal hydraulic results are further used to calculate performance metrics. The methodology is applied to a real WDN to assess resilience performance considering infrastructure asset robustness (real water loss performance indicator), service reliability (minimum pressure index), and service flexibility (network resilience index). A new formulation to assess the metric evolution over time is proposed, deducting the further-away performance results by using an uncertainty weight. The results demonstrate that the increase in metric amplitude for the opposite scenarios over time highlights future uncertainty, reflecting context uncertainty, and the comparison of metric spatial distribution (i.e., at the pipe/node levels) highlights critical areas with higher associated uncertainty.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Enhancing Planning in the Management Urban Water Systems to Increase Resilience)
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Open AccessArticle
Enhancing Transboundary Freshwater Security: From Online Learning to Global Knowledge Exchange Platform
by
Yumiko Yasuda and Yelysaveta Demydenko
Water 2024, 16(7), 976; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16070976 - 28 Mar 2024
Abstract
The management of transboundary water resources presents a complex challenge involving multiple stakeholders and countries. Negotiating a single rule for managing these resources can take years due to various factors, including political, socioeconomic, cultural, and historical backgrounds. To assist transboundary water practitioners worldwide,
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The management of transboundary water resources presents a complex challenge involving multiple stakeholders and countries. Negotiating a single rule for managing these resources can take years due to various factors, including political, socioeconomic, cultural, and historical backgrounds. To assist transboundary water practitioners worldwide, the GWP and GEF IW:LEARN have developed a free-access educational platform, the Massive Open Online Course (MOOC) on Governance for Transboundary Freshwater Security. The MOOC attracted 3855 learners from 166 countries and included 14 interactive online sessions to facilitate discussions among practitioners. In response to learners’ desire for increased interaction and networking opportunities, the Transboundary Water Knowledge Exchange Hub was established. This global online community enables members to share knowledge and engage in direct peer-to-peer learning through an online knowledge management platform. The effort evolved from online course and interactive sessions into an online community, promoting knowledge sharing and peer-to-peer learning through an online knowledge management platform. Through examining this evolution and analysing key survey results, this paper analyses the role of MOOC and knowledge sharing and peer-to-peer learning for building capacity for improved transboundary water governance.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Conflict and Cooperation: The Duality of Cross-Border Water Governance)
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Open AccessArticle
Accumulation Assessment of Mo4+, Pb++, and Cu++ in the Acidic Water of Copper Mines with Lemna minor and Lemna gibba
by
Nevin Konakci
Water 2024, 16(7), 975; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16070975 - 28 Mar 2024
Abstract
Pollutants accumulate in aquatic habitats due to mining activities. The duckweed family includes water plants such as Lemna gibba and Lemna minor, which are tiny, delicate, free-floating aquatic plants. L. minor and L. gibba were used in this study to examine the
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Pollutants accumulate in aquatic habitats due to mining activities. The duckweed family includes water plants such as Lemna gibba and Lemna minor, which are tiny, delicate, free-floating aquatic plants. L. minor and L. gibba were used in this study to examine the accumulation capacities of Mo4+, Pb++, and Cu++ in acidic fluids from copper mining. Two reactors were assigned to L. gibba and L. minor, respectively. These plants and the reactor water were gathered daily for 8 days. Acid mine water pH, temperature, and electric conductivity were also tested daily. L. gibba and L. minor were cleaned, dehydrated, and burned in a drying oven for a whole day at 300 °C. ICP-MS (inductively coupled plasma mass spectroscopy) was used to determine the Mo4+, Pb++, and Cu++ content of the plant and water samples. The Mo, Pb, and Cu concentrations in the copper mining acidic fluids were 30 ± 4, 260 ± 12, and 15,535 ± 322 μg L−1, respectively. Regarding Mo, Pb, and Cu extraction from copper mining acidic fluids, L. gibba and L. minor performed more efficiently than control samples, gathering 29 and 177 times more Mo, 30 and 109 times more Pb, and 495 and 1150 times more Cu, respectively. Considering these findings, L. gibba and L. minor are good plants for rehabilitating polluted waters and can efficiently remove Mo, Pb, and Cu from acid mine fluids.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Technologies for the Remediation of Contaminated Industrial and Domestic Wastewaters)
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Open AccessArticle
Delving into the Impacts of Different Easily Degradable Carbon Sources on the Degradation Characteristics of 2,4,6-Trichlorophenol and Microbial Community Properties
by
Jianguang Wang, Haifeng Fang, Shiyi Li and Hailan Yu
Water 2024, 16(7), 974; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16070974 - 28 Mar 2024
Abstract
In chlorophenol wastewater treatment, adding easily degradable carbon sources, such as methanol, ethanol, sodium acetate, and sodium propionate, significantly improves the chlorophenol removal efficiency. This study systematically compares these conventional carbon sources in different sequencing batch reactors to understand their specific effects on
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In chlorophenol wastewater treatment, adding easily degradable carbon sources, such as methanol, ethanol, sodium acetate, and sodium propionate, significantly improves the chlorophenol removal efficiency. This study systematically compares these conventional carbon sources in different sequencing batch reactors to understand their specific effects on both 2,4,6-trichlorophenol (2,4,6-TCP) degradation efficiency and microbial abundance. In a 35-day experiment, as a carbon source, ethanol exhibited a lower 2,4,6-TCP degradation concentration (77.56 mg/L) than those of methanol, sodium acetate, and sodium propionate, which achieved higher degradation concentrations: 123.89 mg/L, 170.96 mg/L, and 151.79 mg/L, respectively. As a carbon source, sodium acetate enhanced extracellular polymeric substance production (200.80 mg/g·VSS) by microorganisms, providing protection against the toxicity of chlorophenol and resulting in a higher 2,4,6-TCP removal concentration. Metagenomics identified crucial metabolic genes, including PcpA, chqB, Mal-r, pcaI, pcaF, and fadA. The abundance of genera containing the chqB gene correlated positively with the metabolic capacity for 2,4,6-TCP. Moreover, small molecular carbon sources such as methanol, sodium acetate, and sodium propionate promoted the enrichment of genera with functional genes.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Occurrence, Risk Assessment and Removal of Emerging Contaminants in Aquatic Environment)
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Open AccessArticle
A Comprehensive Assessment of the Ecological State of the Transboundary Irtysh River (Kazakhstan, Central Asia)
by
Elena Krupa, Sophia Romanova, Aizada Serikova and Larisa Shakhvorostova
Water 2024, 16(7), 973; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16070973 - 27 Mar 2024
Abstract
The diverse anthropogenic load on the transboundary Irtysh River necessitates an assessment of its ecological state, which was the goal of this work. We conducted this research in July 2023 in the upper and lower reaches of the Kazakh part of the Irtysh
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The diverse anthropogenic load on the transboundary Irtysh River necessitates an assessment of its ecological state, which was the goal of this work. We conducted this research in July 2023 in the upper and lower reaches of the Kazakh part of the Irtysh basin. We determined transparency; temperature; pH; salinity (TDS); oxygen, N-NO3, N-NO2, N-NH4, PO4, Mn, Fe, Si, Cd, Cu, Zn, Pb, Cr, Co, and Hg contents; permanganate index; and zooplankton variables at 27 stations. We assessed the ecological state of the river by comparing the contents of pollutants with their maximum permissible concentrations (MPCfw), Classification Scales, and bioindications. An excess of MPCfw was detected for N-NO2, Cu, and Fe and locally for Cr and Zn. According to the Classification Scales, most analysed variables corresponded to slightly polluted waters; N-NO2, Cr, and Zn corresponded to moderately and heavily polluted waters. Zooplankton was represented by 82 species, with an average abundance of 6728 individuals/m3, biomass of 2.81 mg/m3, Shannon index of 1.99–2.08 bit, ∆-Shannon of 0.09, and average individual mass of 0.0019 mg. The spatial distribution of abiotic and biotic variables indicated increased organic and toxic pollution downstream in the Irtysh. Potential sources of pollution of the Irtysh basin are discussed.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Impacts of Environmental Change and Human Activities on Aquatic Ecosystems)
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Open AccessArticle
Water Quality of Lake Erhai in Southwest China and Its Projected Status in the Near Future
by
Tianbao Xu, Wei Ma, Jun Chen, Lizeng Duan, Huayu Li and Hucai Zhang
Water 2024, 16(7), 972; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16070972 - 27 Mar 2024
Abstract
The water quality of Lake Erhai has deteriorated in recent decades due to socioeconomic development in the lake basin. After the massive implementation of water environmental protection measures in Lake Erhai in 2016, the trend of water quality deterioration has been curbed and
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The water quality of Lake Erhai has deteriorated in recent decades due to socioeconomic development in the lake basin. After the massive implementation of water environmental protection measures in Lake Erhai in 2016, the trend of water quality deterioration has been curbed and the intensity and frequency of algal blooms has decreased. However, water quality monitoring data show that pollutant concentrations in Lake Erhai still exceed acceptable values, and there is a risk of water quality standard limits being further exceeded in the future. Therefore, it is urgent to systematically study the variability characteristics of water quality in Lake Erhai to provide practical methods to predict the future evolution of water quality. Based on water quality monitoring data from 2009 to 2019, the current water quality characteristics of Lake Erhai were analyzed, and a two-dimensional hydrodynamic and water quality mathematical model was built to predict the water quality in 2025. The results showed that the total phosphorus (TP) concentration declined after 2016, mainly due to the significant reduction of TP entering the lake due to pollution interception. However, the concentrations of the potassium permanganate index (CODMn) and total nitrogen (TN) increased after 2016, demonstrating that the pollution control measures have had little effect on the improvement of CODMn and TN. The spatial and temporal distribution of pollutants showed that the water quality in winter and spring was better than in summer and autumn, and the water quality in the southern lake was better than in the northern lake. This analysis indicates that non-point source pollution remains the main source of pollution in Lake Erhai, and that rainfall is the main driving force of pollutants exceeding the water quality standard. According to the water quality predictions, without additional pollution control measures, pollutant concentrations in Lake Erhai will exceed the Class II water quality standard by 2025. This study analyzes the water quality characteristics, predicts the direction of future water quality changes, and provides a theoretical basis for the future water quality protection of Lake Erhai.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plateau Lake Water Quality and Biodiversity: Impacts of Human Activity and Trans-regional Water Diversion)
Open AccessArticle
Study on the Hydrochemical Characteristics and Evolution Law of Taiyuan Formation Limestone Water under the Influence of Grouting with Fly Ash Cement: A Case Study in Gubei Coal Mine of Huainan, China
by
Guanhong Xiao and Haifeng Lu
Water 2024, 16(7), 971; https://doi.org/10.3390/w16070971 - 27 Mar 2024
Abstract
The hydrogeological conditions of Huainan Coalfield are complex. The Taiyuan formation limestone water (Taihui water) in this area is a direct threat to the water source of the 1# coal mining floor. In order to prevent and control water disasters, Gubei Coal Mine
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The hydrogeological conditions of Huainan Coalfield are complex. The Taiyuan formation limestone water (Taihui water) in this area is a direct threat to the water source of the 1# coal mining floor. In order to prevent and control water disasters, Gubei Coal Mine adopted ground high-pressure grouting with fly ash cement to block the hydraulic connection between the Taiyuan formation limestone aquifer and the Ordovician limestone aquifer. However, the injected slurry will destroy the original hydrochemical balance of Taihui water and change its hydrochemical characteristics. Taking the influence area of the 2# karst collapse column in the Beiyi 1# coal mining area of Gubei Coal Mine as an example, a total of 25 Taihui water samples were collected. The hydrochemical characteristics and evolution law of Taihui water before and after grouting are studied via the multivariate statistical method. The research methods include constant index statistics, Piper diagram, correlation analysis, ion combination ratio, and saturation index analysis. The results show that after grouting, the concentrations of Na+ + K+, Ca2+, Mg2+, and Cl− in Taihui water decrease, while the concentrations of SO42− and HCO3− increase. The average values of PH and TDS become larger. The hydrochemical types of Taihui water are more concentrated, mainly HCO3-Na and Cl-Na. The correlations between conventional indicators decrease. According to the analysis of ion combination ratio, dissolution, cation exchange, and pyrite oxidation mainly occur in Taihui water, and these effects are enhanced after grouting. The saturation index results show that after grouting, the saturation index of dolomite, calcite, and gypsum is significantly reduced, and the saturation index of rock salt is slightly increased. The conclusion of this study is that the hydrochemical characteristics of Taihui water are greatly affected by fly ash cement. Moreover, because fly ash cement contains a lower calcium oxide content than ordinary Portland cement, the effect of fly ash cement on the ion concentration of Taihui water and the resulting hydrogeochemical effect are significantly different. Therefore, in the treatment of mine water disasters, the hydrogeochemical evolution law affected by fly ash cement grouting should be identified.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Impact of Geological Uncertainty on Geological Hazards and Groundwater Environment Assessments)
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