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Note: Contents Part I Piton de la Fournaise Volcano 1 A Brief History of the Observation of the Central Area of Piton de la Fournaise / Jean-François Lénat 2 Geodynamic Setting of La Réunion / Jean-François Lénat 3 Construction of La Réunion / Jean-François Lénat 4 Geology and Morphostructural Evolution of Piton de la Fournaise / Laurent Michon, Jean-François Lénat, Patrick Bachèlery and Andrea Di Muro 5 Groundwater Resources on Active Basaltic Volcanoes: Conceptual Models from La Réunion Island and Grande Comore / Jean-Lambert Join, Jean-Luc Folio, Anli Bourhane and Jean-Christophe Comte 6 Erosion and Volcaniclastic Sedimentation at Piton de la Fournaise: From Source to Deep Marine Environment / Nathalie Babonneau, Nicolas Villeneuve, Aude Mazuel and Patrick Bachèlery 7 Magma Paths at Piton de la Fournaise Volcano / Laurent Michon, Valérie Ferrazzini and Andrea Di Muro 8 Pre-historic (〈5 kiloyear) Explosive Activity at Piton de la Fournaise Volcano / Andrea Morandi, Andrea Di Muro, Claudia Principe, Laurent Michon, Gabrielle Leroi, Francesco Norelli and Patrick Bachèlery 9 Fifteen Years of Intense Eruptive Activity (1998–2013) at Piton de la Fournaise Volcano: A Review / Thomas Staudacher, Aline Peltier, Valérie Ferrazzini, Andrea Di Muro, Patrice Boissier, Philippe Catherine, Philippe Kowalski, Frederic Lauret and Jacques Lebreton 10 Petrological and Experimental Constraints on the Evolution of Piton de la Fournaise Magmas / Michel Pichavant, Yann Brugier and Andrea Di Muro 11 A Review of the Recent Geochemical Evolution of Piton de la Fournaise Volcano (1927–2010) / Ivan Vlastélic and Aaron J. Pietruszka 12 Magma Degassing at Piton de la Fournaise Volcano / Andrea Di Muro, Nicole Métrich, Patrick Allard, Alessandro Aiuppa, Mike Burton, Bo Galle and Thomas Staudacher 13 Seismic Monitoring at Piton de la Fournaise / Jean Battaglia, Florent Brenguier and Geneviève Roult 14 Static and Dynamic Seismic Imaging of Piton de la Fournaise / Jean Battaglia and Florent Brenguier 15 Ground Deformation at Piton de la Fournaise, a Review From 20 Years of GNSS Monitoring / Thomas Staudacher and Aline Peltier 16 The March–April 2007 Eruptions of Piton de la Fournaise as Recorded by Interferometric Data / Jean-Luc Froger, Valérie Cayol and Vincent Famin 17 Contribution of Tiltmeters and Extensometers to Monitor Piton de la Fournaise Activity / Aline Peltier, François Beauducel, Thomas Staudacher, Philippe Catherine and Philippe Kowalski 18 A Geographical Information System for Mapping Eruption Risk at Piton de la Fournaise / Paule-Annick Davoine and Cécile Saint-Marc 19 Perception of Risk for Volcanic Hazard in Indian Ocean: La Réunion Island Case Study / Rosella Nave, Tullio Ricci and Maria Giuseppina Pacilli 20 Volcanological Map of the Plaine des Sables, Piton de la Fournaise / Claudia Principe, Andrea Morandi, Andrea Di Muro and Laurent Michon Part II Karthala Volcano 21 The Volcanism of the Comoros Archipelago Integrated at a Regional Scale / Laurent Michon 22 Structure and Eruptive History of Karthala Volcano / Patrick Bachèlery, Julie Morin, Nicolas Villeneuve, Hamidi Soulé, Hamidou Nassor and Ahmed Radadi Ali 23 Geochemical and Petrological Aspects of Karthala Volcano / Patrick Bachèlery and Christophe Hémond 24 Groundwater Prospection in Grande Comore Island—Joint Contribution of Geophysical Methods, Hydrogeological Time-Series Analysis and Groundwater Modelling / Anli Bourhane, Jean-Christophe Comte, Jean-Lambert Join and Kassim Ibrahim 25 Volcanic Risk and Crisis Management on Grande Comore Island / Julie Morin, Patrick Bachèlery, Hamidi Soulé and Hamidou Nassor Index

Note: Contents Contributors Foreword 1. Introduction / Yosuke Aoki and Corné Kreemer 1. History 2. Measuring Earth's deformation onshore 3. Measuring Earth's deformation offshore 4. Unconventional use of GNSS 5. GNSS and climate change 5.1. Deformation in response to long- and short-term climate change 5.2. Measuring glacier motions 5.3. Earthquakes and volcanism triggered by climate change 6. Future of GNSS References 2. Technical aspects of GNSS data processing / Jianghui Geng 1. GNSS measurements 1.1. GNSS observation equations 1.2. GNSS error sources 2. GNSS positioning 2.1. Precise point positioning (PPP) 2.2. Carrier-phase-based relative positioning 2.3. Real-time GNSS 3. Atmosphere sounding 3.1. Ground-based troposphere sounding 3.2. Ground-based ionosphere sounding 3.3. GNSS radio occultation (GNSS-RO) 4. GNSS reflectometry 4.1. GNSS interferometric reflectometry based on single antennas 4.2. GNSS reflectometry based on dual antennas References Part I Monitoring earthquakes and volcanoes with GNSS 3. On the use of GNSS-inferred crustal strain accumulation in evaluating seismic potential / Corné Kreemer, Ilya Zaliapin, and Dirk Kraaijpoel 1. Introduction 2. Estimation of geodetic strain and moment rates 2.1. From velocities to strain rates 2.2. From strain rate to moment rate 3. Seismic moment distribution 4. Seismic-to-geodetic moment ratio 4.1. Background 4.2. Approach 5. Geodetic potency versus earthquake numbers 5.1. Background 5.2 . Approach 6. Data 7. Results 8. Discussion Appendix: Approximating cumulative seismic moment distribution A.1. Existence of two regimes A.2. Analytic results for each of the regimes A.3. Approximation equations Acknowledgments References 4. GNSS applications for earthquake deformation / Jean-Mathieu Nocquet and Martin Vallée 1. Introduction 2. Observation of the static displacement induced by earthquakes from GNSS 3. Observation of the coseismic static displacement using other techniques 4. Modeling of GNSS static coseismic displacement for imaging earthquake slip distribution 5. Dynamic displacement induced by earthquakes 6. Kinematic inversion: Imaging slip history during earthquake 7. High-rate GNSS as small aperture seismic array 8. Some earthquake properties and perspectives 9. Future issues and opportunities 10. Summary points Acknowledgment References 5. GNSS observations of transient deformation in plate boundary zones / Laura M. Wallace and Chris Rollins 1. Introduction 2. Episodic slow slip and creep events 2.1. Slow slip events at subduction zones 2.2. Slow slip and creep events in other settings 2.3. Interplay between slow slip events and earthquakes 2.4. The ubiquity of slow slip events 3. Postseismic deformation and contributions from GNSS 3.1. Viscoelastic relaxation 3.2. Afterslip 3.3. Poroelastic rebound 3.4. Toward a holistic understanding of postseismic deformation 4. Conclusions and future directions References 6. Earthquake and tsunami early warning with GNSS data / Brendan W. Crowell 1. Introduction 2. Real-time GNSS positioning from a historical perspective 3. Peak ground displacement 4. Coseismic-based methods 5. Algorithm development 6. Future directions 7. Final thoughts References 7. Measuring volcano deformation with GNSS / Yosuke Aoki 1. Introduction 2. Relating observed deformation to subsurface processes 2.1. Governing equations 2.2. Analytical modeling 2.3. Shear on the conduit 2.4. Adding material complexities 2.5. Some caveats 3. Observation of volcano deformation 3.1. Deformation during unrest 3.2. Coeruptive deformation 3.3. Posteruptive deformation 4. Observations of volcanic plumes by GNSS 4.1. Atmospheric disturbance by volcanic plumes 4.2. GNSS signal decay by volcanic plumes 5. Recommendations 5.1. Continuing observations 5.2. Denser observations 5.3. Modeling Acknowledgments References 8. GNSS applications for ionospheric seismology and volcanology / Kosuke Heki 1. Introduction and observation history 2. GNSS-TEC observations 2.1. Phase difference and TEC 2.2. From STEC to VTEC 2.3. Finding signals related to earthquakes and volcanic eruptions 2.4. Multi-GNSS 3. Ionospheric seismology 3.1. Three different atmospheric waves 3.2. Discriminating the three different waves 3.3. Direct acoustic waves from epicenter 3.4 Knowing Mw from amplitudes of disturbances 3.5. Internal gravity wave signatures 4. Ionospheric volcanology 4.1. Two types of ionospheric disturbances by volcanic eruptions 4.2. Type 1 disturbance 4.3. Type 2 disturbance Acknowledgments References Part II Monitoring climate change with GNSS 9. GNSS applications for measuring sea level changes / Rüdiger Haas 1. Introduction 2. GNSS at traditional tide gauges 3. Reflected GNSS signals 4. Coastal GNSS-R with two or more antennas 5. Coastal GNSS-IR with single antennas 6. Sensing sea level variability with GNSS 7. Selected highlights 8. Conclusions and outlook Acknowledgment References 10. GNSS application for weather and climate change monitoring / Peng Yuan, Mingyuan Zhang, Weiping Jiang, Joseph Awange, Michael Mayer, Harald Schuh, and Hansjorg Kutterer 1. Introduction 2. Data and methods 2.1. Tropospheric delay 2.2. Water vapor retrieval 3. Extreme weather events 4. Diurnal cycle 5. Annual cycle 6. lnterannual variations 7. Long-term trends and climate change 8· Summary and outlook Acknowledgments References 11. Monitoring of extreme weather: GNSS remote sensing of flood inundation and hurricane wind speed / Clara Chew and Chris Ruf 1. GNSS remote sensing for flood inundation mapping 1.1. Amp I itude metrics 1.2. Coherency metrics 1.3. Current issues 2. GNSS remote sensing for hurricane wind speed retrieval References 12. GNSS and the cryosphere / Tonie van Dam, Pippa Whitehouse and Lin Liu 1. Introduction 2. Elastic surface displacements 2.1. Theory 2.2. Half-space loading models 2.3. Glacier dynamics 2.4. Geodynamic processes in cryospheric regions 3. The viscoelastic response of the Earth to cryospheric change 3.1. GIA: Three pieces to the puzzle 3.2. Using GNSS to measure the viscoelastic response to cryospheric change 3.3. Horizontal deformation 3.4. Regions of interest 3.5. Polar case studies for GIA 4. GNSS interferometric reflectometry for the cryosphere 4.1. Introduction 4.2. Principles and methodology of GNSS-IR 4.3. Snow depth 4.4. Ice mass balance 4.5. Freeze and thaw movements in permafrost areas 4.6. Summary Appendix References 13. The role of GNSS monitoring in landslide research / Halldór Geirsson and Þorsteinn Sæmundsson 1. Introduction 2. Landslide motion and landslide types 3. GNSS landslide equipment and data processing 4. Case studies 4.1. Aknes, Norway 4.2. Almenningar, Iceland 4.3. El Yunque, Puerto Rico 4.4. Ca Lita, Italy 5. Perspective of GNSS and other landslide deformation methods Acknowledgments References 14. Climate- and weather-driven solid Earth deformation and seismicity / Roland Bürgmann, Kristel Chanard, and Yuning Fu 1. Introduction 2. Observing and modeling climate-driven deformation, stress, and seismicity 2.1. Measuring climate-driven deformation 2.2. Modeling climate-driven deformation and stress 2.3. Documenting earthquake triggering and modulation 3. Deformation and seismicity from changing climate and weather 3.1. Ice age climate cycles 3.2. Consequences of recent climate change 3.3. Seasonal hydrological and atmospheric loads 3.4. "Earthquake weather" 4. Lessons learned from climate-driven deformation and seismicity 4.1. Probing the Earth's constitutive properties using climate-driven deformation 4.2. Insights on frictional fault properties and state of stress in the Earth from periodic climate forcing 5. Summary and future opportunities Acknowledgments References 15. Influence of climate change on magmatic processes: What does geodesy and modeling of geodetic data tell us? / Freysteinn Sigmundsson, Michelle Parks, Halldór Geirsson, Fabien Albino, Peter Schmidt Siqi Li, Finnur Pálsson, Benedikt G. Ófeigsson, Vincent Drouin, Guðfinna Aðalgeirsdóttir, Eyjólf