ALBERT

Note: Contents Contributors Foreword 1. Introduction / Yosuke Aoki and Corné Kreemer 1. History 2. Measuring Earth's deformation onshore 3. Measuring Earth's deformation offshore 4. Unconventional use of GNSS 5. GNSS and climate change 5.1. Deformation in response to long- and short-term climate change 5.2. Measuring glacier motions 5.3. Earthquakes and volcanism triggered by climate change 6. Future of GNSS References 2. Technical aspects of GNSS data processing / Jianghui Geng 1. GNSS measurements 1.1. GNSS observation equations 1.2. GNSS error sources 2. GNSS positioning 2.1. Precise point positioning (PPP) 2.2. Carrier-phase-based relative positioning 2.3. Real-time GNSS 3. Atmosphere sounding 3.1. Ground-based troposphere sounding 3.2. Ground-based ionosphere sounding 3.3. GNSS radio occultation (GNSS-RO) 4. GNSS reflectometry 4.1. GNSS interferometric reflectometry based on single antennas 4.2. GNSS reflectometry based on dual antennas References Part I Monitoring earthquakes and volcanoes with GNSS 3. On the use of GNSS-inferred crustal strain accumulation in evaluating seismic potential / Corné Kreemer, Ilya Zaliapin, and Dirk Kraaijpoel 1. Introduction 2. Estimation of geodetic strain and moment rates 2.1. From velocities to strain rates 2.2. From strain rate to moment rate 3. Seismic moment distribution 4. Seismic-to-geodetic moment ratio 4.1. Background 4.2. Approach 5. Geodetic potency versus earthquake numbers 5.1. Background 5.2 . Approach 6. Data 7. Results 8. Discussion Appendix: Approximating cumulative seismic moment distribution A.1. Existence of two regimes A.2. Analytic results for each of the regimes A.3. Approximation equations Acknowledgments References 4. GNSS applications for earthquake deformation / Jean-Mathieu Nocquet and Martin Vallée 1. Introduction 2. Observation of the static displacement induced by earthquakes from GNSS 3. Observation of the coseismic static displacement using other techniques 4. Modeling of GNSS static coseismic displacement for imaging earthquake slip distribution 5. Dynamic displacement induced by earthquakes 6. Kinematic inversion: Imaging slip history during earthquake 7. High-rate GNSS as small aperture seismic array 8. Some earthquake properties and perspectives 9. Future issues and opportunities 10. Summary points Acknowledgment References 5. GNSS observations of transient deformation in plate boundary zones / Laura M. Wallace and Chris Rollins 1. Introduction 2. Episodic slow slip and creep events 2.1. Slow slip events at subduction zones 2.2. Slow slip and creep events in other settings 2.3. Interplay between slow slip events and earthquakes 2.4. The ubiquity of slow slip events 3. Postseismic deformation and contributions from GNSS 3.1. Viscoelastic relaxation 3.2. Afterslip 3.3. Poroelastic rebound 3.4. Toward a holistic understanding of postseismic deformation 4. Conclusions and future directions References 6. Earthquake and tsunami early warning with GNSS data / Brendan W. Crowell 1. Introduction 2. Real-time GNSS positioning from a historical perspective 3. Peak ground displacement 4. Coseismic-based methods 5. Algorithm development 6. Future directions 7. Final thoughts References 7. Measuring volcano deformation with GNSS / Yosuke Aoki 1. Introduction 2. Relating observed deformation to subsurface processes 2.1. Governing equations 2.2. Analytical modeling 2.3. Shear on the conduit 2.4. Adding material complexities 2.5. Some caveats 3. Observation of volcano deformation 3.1. Deformation during unrest 3.2. Coeruptive deformation 3.3. Posteruptive deformation 4. Observations of volcanic plumes by GNSS 4.1. Atmospheric disturbance by volcanic plumes 4.2. GNSS signal decay by volcanic plumes 5. Recommendations 5.1. Continuing observations 5.2. Denser observations 5.3. Modeling Acknowledgments References 8. GNSS applications for ionospheric seismology and volcanology / Kosuke Heki 1. Introduction and observation history 2. GNSS-TEC observations 2.1. Phase difference and TEC 2.2. From STEC to VTEC 2.3. Finding signals related to earthquakes and volcanic eruptions 2.4. Multi-GNSS 3. Ionospheric seismology 3.1. Three different atmospheric waves 3.2. Discriminating the three different waves 3.3. Direct acoustic waves from epicenter 3.4 Knowing Mw from amplitudes of disturbances 3.5. Internal gravity wave signatures 4. Ionospheric volcanology 4.1. Two types of ionospheric disturbances by volcanic eruptions 4.2. Type 1 disturbance 4.3. Type 2 disturbance Acknowledgments References Part II Monitoring climate change with GNSS 9. GNSS applications for measuring sea level changes / Rüdiger Haas 1. Introduction 2. GNSS at traditional tide gauges 3. Reflected GNSS signals 4. Coastal GNSS-R with two or more antennas 5. Coastal GNSS-IR with single antennas 6. Sensing sea level variability with GNSS 7. Selected highlights 8. Conclusions and outlook Acknowledgment References 10. GNSS application for weather and climate change monitoring / Peng Yuan, Mingyuan Zhang, Weiping Jiang, Joseph Awange, Michael Mayer, Harald Schuh, and Hansjorg Kutterer 1. Introduction 2. Data and methods 2.1. Tropospheric delay 2.2. Water vapor retrieval 3. Extreme weather events 4. Diurnal cycle 5. Annual cycle 6. lnterannual variations 7. Long-term trends and climate change 8· Summary and outlook Acknowledgments References 11. Monitoring of extreme weather: GNSS remote sensing of flood inundation and hurricane wind speed / Clara Chew and Chris Ruf 1. GNSS remote sensing for flood inundation mapping 1.1. Amp I itude metrics 1.2. Coherency metrics 1.3. Current issues 2. GNSS remote sensing for hurricane wind speed retrieval References 12. GNSS and the cryosphere / Tonie van Dam, Pippa Whitehouse and Lin Liu 1. Introduction 2. Elastic surface displacements 2.1. Theory 2.2. Half-space loading models 2.3. Glacier dynamics 2.4. Geodynamic processes in cryospheric regions 3. The viscoelastic response of the Earth to cryospheric change 3.1. GIA: Three pieces to the puzzle 3.2. Using GNSS to measure the viscoelastic response to cryospheric change 3.3. Horizontal deformation 3.4. Regions of interest 3.5. Polar case studies for GIA 4. GNSS interferometric reflectometry for the cryosphere 4.1. Introduction 4.2. Principles and methodology of GNSS-IR 4.3. Snow depth 4.4. Ice mass balance 4.5. Freeze and thaw movements in permafrost areas 4.6. Summary Appendix References 13. The role of GNSS monitoring in landslide research / Halldór Geirsson and Þorsteinn Sæmundsson 1. Introduction 2. Landslide motion and landslide types 3. GNSS landslide equipment and data processing 4. Case studies 4.1. Aknes, Norway 4.2. Almenningar, Iceland 4.3. El Yunque, Puerto Rico 4.4. Ca Lita, Italy 5. Perspective of GNSS and other landslide deformation methods Acknowledgments References 14. Climate- and weather-driven solid Earth deformation and seismicity / Roland Bürgmann, Kristel Chanard, and Yuning Fu 1. Introduction 2. Observing and modeling climate-driven deformation, stress, and seismicity 2.1. Measuring climate-driven deformation 2.2. Modeling climate-driven deformation and stress 2.3. Documenting earthquake triggering and modulation 3. Deformation and seismicity from changing climate and weather 3.1. Ice age climate cycles 3.2. Consequences of recent climate change 3.3. Seasonal hydrological and atmospheric loads 3.4. "Earthquake weather" 4. Lessons learned from climate-driven deformation and seismicity 4.1. Probing the Earth's constitutive properties using climate-driven deformation 4.2. Insights on frictional fault properties and state of stress in the Earth from periodic climate forcing 5. Summary and future opportunities Acknowledgments References 15. Influence of climate change on magmatic processes: What does geodesy and modeling of geodetic data tell us? / Freysteinn Sigmundsson, Michelle Parks, Halldór Geirsson, Fabien Albino, Peter Schmidt Siqi Li, Finnur Pálsson, Benedikt G. Ófeigsson, Vincent Drouin, Guðfinna Aðalgeirsdóttir, Eyjólf

Note: Contents Part I Piton de la Fournaise Volcano 1 A Brief History of the Observation of the Central Area of Piton de la Fournaise / Jean-François Lénat 2 Geodynamic Setting of La Réunion / Jean-François Lénat 3 Construction of La Réunion / Jean-François Lénat 4 Geology and Morphostructural Evolution of Piton de la Fournaise / Laurent Michon, Jean-François Lénat, Patrick Bachèlery and Andrea Di Muro 5 Groundwater Resources on Active Basaltic Volcanoes: Conceptual Models from La Réunion Island and Grande Comore / Jean-Lambert Join, Jean-Luc Folio, Anli Bourhane and Jean-Christophe Comte 6 Erosion and Volcaniclastic Sedimentation at Piton de la Fournaise: From Source to Deep Marine Environment / Nathalie Babonneau, Nicolas Villeneuve, Aude Mazuel and Patrick Bachèlery 7 Magma Paths at Piton de la Fournaise Volcano / Laurent Michon, Valérie Ferrazzini and Andrea Di Muro 8 Pre-historic (〈5 kiloyear) Explosive Activity at Piton de la Fournaise Volcano / Andrea Morandi, Andrea Di Muro, Claudia Principe, Laurent Michon, Gabrielle Leroi, Francesco Norelli and Patrick Bachèlery 9 Fifteen Years of Intense Eruptive Activity (1998–2013) at Piton de la Fournaise Volcano: A Review / Thomas Staudacher, Aline Peltier, Valérie Ferrazzini, Andrea Di Muro, Patrice Boissier, Philippe Catherine, Philippe Kowalski, Frederic Lauret and Jacques Lebreton 10 Petrological and Experimental Constraints on the Evolution of Piton de la Fournaise Magmas / Michel Pichavant, Yann Brugier and Andrea Di Muro 11 A Review of the Recent Geochemical Evolution of Piton de la Fournaise Volcano (1927–2010) / Ivan Vlastélic and Aaron J. Pietruszka 12 Magma Degassing at Piton de la Fournaise Volcano / Andrea Di Muro, Nicole Métrich, Patrick Allard, Alessandro Aiuppa, Mike Burton, Bo Galle and Thomas Staudacher 13 Seismic Monitoring at Piton de la Fournaise / Jean Battaglia, Florent Brenguier and Geneviève Roult 14 Static and Dynamic Seismic Imaging of Piton de la Fournaise / Jean Battaglia and Florent Brenguier 15 Ground Deformation at Piton de la Fournaise, a Review From 20 Years of GNSS Monitoring / Thomas Staudacher and Aline Peltier 16 The March–April 2007 Eruptions of Piton de la Fournaise as Recorded by Interferometric Data / Jean-Luc Froger, Valérie Cayol and Vincent Famin 17 Contribution of Tiltmeters and Extensometers to Monitor Piton de la Fournaise Activity / Aline Peltier, François Beauducel, Thomas Staudacher, Philippe Catherine and Philippe Kowalski 18 A Geographical Information System for Mapping Eruption Risk at Piton de la Fournaise / Paule-Annick Davoine and Cécile Saint-Marc 19 Perception of Risk for Volcanic Hazard in Indian Ocean: La Réunion Island Case Study / Rosella Nave, Tullio Ricci and Maria Giuseppina Pacilli 20 Volcanological Map of the Plaine des Sables, Piton de la Fournaise / Claudia Principe, Andrea Morandi, Andrea Di Muro and Laurent Michon Part II Karthala Volcano 21 The Volcanism of the Comoros Archipelago Integrated at a Regional Scale / Laurent Michon 22 Structure and Eruptive History of Karthala Volcano / Patrick Bachèlery, Julie Morin, Nicolas Villeneuve, Hamidi Soulé, Hamidou Nassor and Ahmed Radadi Ali 23 Geochemical and Petrological Aspects of Karthala Volcano / Patrick Bachèlery and Christophe Hémond 24 Groundwater Prospection in Grande Comore Island—Joint Contribution of Geophysical Methods, Hydrogeological Time-Series Analysis and Groundwater Modelling / Anli Bourhane, Jean-Christophe Comte, Jean-Lambert Join and Kassim Ibrahim 25 Volcanic Risk and Crisis Management on Grande Comore Island / Julie Morin, Patrick Bachèlery, Hamidi Soulé and Hamidou Nassor Index

Note: Table of Contents Foreword to the Revised Edition Preface 1 Observational Studies and Experiments 1.1 Introduction 1.2 The HIP trial 1.3 Snow on cholera 1.4 Yule on the causes of poverty Exercise set A 1.5 End notes 2 The Regression Line 2.1 Introduction 2.2 The regression line 2.3 Hooke’s law Exercise set A 2.4 Complexities 2.5 Simple vs multiple regression Exercise set B 2.6 End notes 3 Matrix Algebra 3.1 Introduction Exercise set A 3.2 Determinants and inverses Exercise set B 3.3 Random vectors Exercise set C 3.4 Positive definite matrices Exercise set D 3.5 The normal distribution Exercise set E 3.6 If you want a book on matrix algebra 4 Multiple Regression 4.1 Introduction Exercise set A 4.2 Standard errors Things we don’t need Exercise set B 4.3 Explained variance in multiple regression Association or causation? Exercise set C 4.4 What happens to OLS if the assumptions break down? 4.5 Discussion questions 4.6 End notes 5 Multiple Regression: Special Topics 5.1 Introduction 5.2 OLS is BLUE Exercise set A 5.3 Generalized least squares Exercise set B 5.4 Examples on GLS Exercise set C 5.5 What happens to GLS if the assumptions break down? 5.6 Normal theory Statistical significance Exercise set D 5.7 The F-test “The” F-test in applied work Exercise set E 5.8 Data snooping Exercise set F 5.9 Discussion questions 5.10 End notes 6 Path Models 6.1 Stratification Exercise set A 6.2 Hooke’s law revisited Exercise set B 6.3 Political repression during the McCarthy era Exercise set C 6.4 Inferring causation by regression Exercise set D 6.5 Response schedules for path diagrams Selection vs intervention Structural equations and stable parameters Ambiguity in notation Exercise set E 6.6 Dummy variables Types of variables 6.7 Discussion questions 6.8 End notes 7 Maximum Likelihood 7.1 Introduction Exercise set A 7.2 Probit models Why not regression? The latent-variable formulation Exercise set B Identification vs estimation What if the Ui are N (μ, σ 2)? Exercise set C 7.3 Logit models Exercise set D 7.4 The effect of Catholic schools Latent variables Response schedules The second equation Mechanics: bivariate probit Why a model rather than a cross-tab? Interactions More on table 3 in Evans and Schwab More on the second equation Exercise set E 7.5 Discussion questions 7.6 End notes 8 The Bootstrap 8.1 Introduction Exercise set A 8.2 Bootstrapping a model for energy demand Exercise set B 8.3 End notes 9 Simultaneous Equations 9.1 Introduction Exercise set A 9.2 Instrumental variables Exercise set B 9.3 Estimating the butter model Exercise set C 9.4 What are the two stages? Invariance assumptions 9.5 A social-science example: education and fertility More on Rindfuss et al 9.6 Covariates 9.7 Linear probability models The assumptions The questions Exercise set D 9.8 More on IVLS Some technical issues Exercise set E Simulations to illustrate IVLS 9.9 Discussion questions 9.10 End notes 10 Issues in Statistical Modeling 10.1 Introduction The bootstrap The role of asymptotics Philosophers’ stones The modelers’ response 10.2 Critical literature 10.3 Response schedules 10.4 Evaluating the models in chapters 7–9 10.5 Summing up References Answers to Exercises The Computer Labs Appendix: Sample MATLAB Code Reprints Gibson on McCarthy Evans and Schwab on Catholic Schools Rindfuss et al on Education and Fertility Schneider et al on Social Capital Index

Note: Contents 1 Introduction 1.1 Motivation and scope 1.2 The geology and mineralogy of Juventae Chasma in context with Valles Marineris 1.2.1 Valles Marineris 1.2.2 Juventae Chasma and Maja Valles 1.3 Comparative studies 1.4 Atmosphere and water 1.5 Sulfuric acid evolution of Mars 1.5.1 Sulfuric acid evolution by volcanic exhalation 1.5.2 Sulfuric acid evolution by aqueous pyrite oxidation 2 Data methods 2.1 Mars Global Surveyor 2.2 Mars Orbiter Altimeter 2.3 Mars Orbiter Camera 2.4 High-Resolution Stereo Camera 2.5 Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter 2.6 The Context Camera 2.7 Software Geographic Information System 3 Geochemistry 3.1 Sample selection and description 3.2 Analytical methods 3.2.1 X-ray fluorescence spectrometry 3.2.2 X-ray diffractometry 3.3 Geochemical investigations of major elements 3.4 Mineral content 4 Experimental solution production and analytical methods 4.1 Leaching experiment results 4.1.1 Dissolved species distribution in the pH 1.3 samples 4.1.2 Dissolved species distribution in the pH 3 samples 4.2 Comparison of solution samples and solid samples 5 Numerical modeling of evaporation 5.1 Modeling software 5.2 Limitations 5.3 Modeling results 5.3.1 Tissint 5.3.2 Olivine 5.3.3 Clinopyroxene 5.3.4 Orthopyroxene 5.3.5 Plagioclase 5.3.6 1-komatiite 5.3.7 s-komatiite 5.3.8 Volcanic glass 5.3.9 DTS-2b 5.3.10 Bir-la 5.3.11 Xenolith 6 Interpretation and discussion 6.1 Fluid geochemistry 6.2 Volume calculations of Juventae Chasma, the mounds A to D, and water contents 6.3 Brittle fractures at mound B 6.4 Dependency of mineral formation on fluid temperature 7 Paleolakustrine evolution of Juventae Chasma 8 Summary of results 9 References 10 Appendix

Note: Dissertation, Universität Potsdam, 2014 , Contents List of Figures List of Tables List of Abbreviations 1. Introduction 1.1. Motivation and Purpose 1.2. Structure of the Thesis I. Technical and Scientic Background 2. Geographical Information Systems (GIS) 2.1. Denition 2.2. ArcGIS and JMars 2.3. Data Models 2.4. Coordinate Systems and Projections 2.5. Data Analyses in GIS 2.5.1. Measurements 2.5.2. Calculations 2.5.3. Attribute & Spatial Analyses 2.6. Automated Systems 2.6.1. ModelBuilder 2.6.2. Expert Systems 2.7. Databases 3. Data and Data Processing 3.1. Remote Sensing 3.1.1. Scanning Systems 3.1.2. Spectra 3.1.3. Resolution 3.2. Data Processing 3.2.1. Data Quality 3.2.2. Pre-Processing 3.2.3. Data Processing Software 3.3. Instruments 3.3.1. Mars Orbiter Laser Altimeter (MOLA) 3.3.2. Thermal Emission Spectrometer (TES) 3.3.3. Thermal Emission Imaging System (THEMIS) 3.3.4. High Resolution Stereo Camera (HRSC) 3.3.5. Context Camera (CTX) 4. Floor-Fractured Craters (FFCs) 4.1. Why Select FFCs? 4.2. Discovery and Research of FFCs 4.3. Possible Formation Processes 4.3.1. Intrusive Volcanism 4.3.2. Subsurface Ice 4.3.3. Groundwater Migration 4.3.4. Rayleigh Convection 4.3.5. Deep-Water Fault Systems 4.3.6. Tectonics 4.4. Importance of FFCs II. Methods 5. Manual Crater Analysis 5.1. Data and Software used for Crater Analysis 5.2. Observations of Crater A 5.2.1. Geologic Setting and Crater Morphology 5.2.2. Measurements 5.2.3. Crater Size Frequency Distribution 5.3. Observation of Crater Lipany 5.3.1. Geologic Setting and Crater Morphology 5.3.2. Measurements 5.3.3. Crater Size Frequency Distribution 6. Databases 6.1. Parameters for the Database 6.1.1. Interior Surface Features 6.1.2. Exterior Surface Features 6.2. Generating the Database 7. Automated Tools for Analysis of FFCs 7.1. Purpose 7.2. Automation and User-Based Analysis 7.3. Hierarchic Structure 7.4. Tools 7.4.1. Measurements 7.4.2. Calculations 7.4.3. Classications 8. Implementation in ArcGIS 8.1. Programming Language: Python 8.2. Python in ArcGIS 8.3. ArcGIS Tools III. Quantitative and Qualitative Analysis 9. Result of Case Study 9.1. Chronology 9.1.1. Crater A 9.1.2. Crater Lipany 9.2. Origin of Fracturing in Observed Craters 9.2.1. Crater A 9.2.2. Crater Lipany 10.Result of Tool Analysis 10.1. General Attributes of FFCs 10.1.1. Location 10.1.2. Size 10.1.3. Depth 10.2. Crater Interior 10.2.1. Surface Features 10.2.2. Elevation 10.3. Crater Context 10.3.1. Surface Features 10.3.2. Erosion & Paleolakes 10.4. Origin Types 10.4.1. Result of the Six Origin Types 10.4.2. Most Likely Origin for each FFC 10.4.3. Origin Types in Detail 10.4.4. Case Study Craters 11.Discussion 11.1. Interpretation of Tool Analysis Results 11.2. Three Final Origin Types 11.3. Limits of the Classication Tools 11.4. Comparison of Manual and Automated Analysis 11.5. Advantages 12.Summary & Conclusion 12.1. Technical Results 12.2. Scientic Results 13.Future Work 13.1. Technical Improvements 13.2. Scientic Applications Appendix Publications Conference Contributions Awards Curriculum Vitae

Note: Contents 1. Introduction 1.1· Motivation 1.2. Outline 2. The Main Asteroid Belt 2.1. The Main Asteroid Belt at a Glance 2.2. Asteroid Spin and Impact Rates 2.3. The Dawn Mission 2.3.1. Mission Objectives 2.3.2. Scientific Instruments 2.3.3. Mission Operations 2.4· Asteroid (4) Vesta 2.4.1. The HED-Meteorites 2.4.2. Regolith 2.4.3. Rheasilvia and Veneneia 2.4.4. Geology 2.4.5. Shape and Gravity 3. Theoretical Background 3.1. Impact Cratering Dynamics 3.1.1. Contact and Compression Stage 3.1.2. Excavation Stage 3.1.3. Modification Stage 3.1.4. Crater Degradation 3.1.5. Acoustic Fluidisation 3.1.6. Acoustically Fluidised Material Properties 3.1.7. The Rheasilvia Impact Event 3.2. The Coriolis Effect 3.2.1. Forces in a Rotating Reference Frame 3.2.2. Geodetic Reference Frame 3.2.3· Inertial Circles 3.2.4. Rossby Number 4. Data 4.1. Digital Terrain Model 4.2. Mosaic 4.3. Map Projection 5. Mass-Wasting Features within Rheasilvia 5.1. Slumping 5.2. Curved Ridges 5.3. Coriolis Effect on Mass Movements 6. The Coriolis Model 6.1. Aim 6.2. Mapping 6.3. Computer-Based Analysis 6.3.1. Defining the Reference Frame 63.2. Calculating the Velocity 6.4. Ancient and Recent Vesta’s Reference System 6.5. Changing the Histogram’s Bin Size 6.6. The Effect of Vesta’s Topography 6.7· Error Analysis 6.8. Data Illustration 6.9. Deriving Acceleration and Slope 7. Results 7.1. Region 1:270°Ε to 360°Ε 7.1.1· Accelerating Velocity Sections 7.1.2· Decelerating Velocity Sections 7.1.3. Constant Velocity Sections 7.2. Region 2: The Rheasilvia and Veneneia Intersection 7.2.1. Accelerating Velocity Sections 7.2.2. Decelerating Velocity Sections 7.2.3· Constant Velocity Sections 7.3. Region 3: The Central Peak 7.3.1. Accelerating Velocity Sections 7.3.2. Constant Velocity Sections 7.4. Material Properties 7.4.1. Viscosity 7.4.2. Coefficient of Friction 8· Discussion 8.1. Region 1: 270°Ε to 360°Ε 8.2. Region 2: The Rheasilvia and Veneneia Intersection 8.3. Region 3: The Central Peak 8.4. Material Properties 8.4.1. Viscosity 8.4.2. Coefficient of Friction 8.5. Dynamical Comparison of the Regions 8.6. Comparision to Other Mass-Wasting Velocities 9. Conclusions and Summary 9.1. Conclusions 9.2. Summary References Appendices A. IDL-Code Samples Α.1. Calculating the Velocity A.2. Ancient Vesta’s Reference System B. Curve Plots and Statistics Β.1. Curve Plots Β.2. Curve Statistics Β.3. Curve Measurements C. Mass-Wasting Features and Processes in Vesta’s South Polar Basin Rheasilvia

Note: Preface Hynes, A. J. Maarten de Wit – a life well lived Introduction Hynes, A. J. and Murphy, J. B. The consummate geoscientist: a celebration of the career of Maarten de Wit van Staal, C. R. and Dewey, J. F. A review and tectonic interpretation of the Taconian–Grampian tract between Newfoundland and Scotland: diachronous accretion of an extensive forearc–arc– backarc system to a hyperextended Laurentian margin and subsequent subduction polarity reversal Pehrsson, S., Eglington, B., Rainbird, R., Regis, D., Ramaekers, P. and Jefferson, C. Extent and significance of the Racklan–Forward Orogen in Canada: far-field interior reactivation during Nuna assembly Levin, V., Yuan, H. and Hynes, A. Continents never forget: seismological record of lithospheric deformation 1 billion years ago Craddock, J., Paulsen, T., da Silva Schmitt, R., Johnston, S. T., Myrow, P. M. and Hughes, N. C. The amalgamation of Gondwana: calcite twinning and finite strains from the early–late Paleozoic Buzios, Ross, Kurgiakh and Gondwanide orogens Linol, B. and Dhansay, T. Brittle tectonic evolution of Gondwana: implications for shale-gas and groundwater exploration Schmitt, R. da S., Trouw, R. A. J., Alves da Silva, E., de Jesus, J. V. M., da Costa, L. F. M. and Passarelli, C. R. The role of crustal-scale shear zones in SW Gondwana consolidation – transatlantic correlation Archibald, D. B., Collins, A. S., Armistead, S. E., Foden, J. D., Payne, J. L. and Razakamanana, T. Zircon U–Pb, oxygen and hafnium isotopic characteristics of the Neoarchean–Paleoproterozoic Betsiboka Suite, Madagascar: tracing source to sink pathways in Proterozoic and Phanerozoic provenance studies Murphy, J. B., Nance, R. D. and Wu, L. The provenance of Avalonia and its tectonic implications: a critical reappraisal Dan, W., Murphy, J. B., Wang, Q., Zhang, X.-Z. and Tang, G.-J. Tectonic evolution of the Proto-Qiangtang Ocean and its relationship with the Palaeo-Tethys and Rheic oceans Zhang, Y., Yu, X., Wang, Y., Qian, X., Gan, C., Ghani, A. A., Yu, Y. and Xu, C. Reconstructing the East Palaeo-Tethyan assemblage boundary in west Indonesia: constraints from Triassic granitoids in the Bangka and Belitung islands Mo, J., Xia, X.-P., Zhou, M., Lai, C.-K., Cui, Z., Xu, J. and Aidoo, F. Detrital zircon U–Pb age constraints on the Meso-Tethys Ocean closure in SE Asia Hodgin, E. B., Carlotto, V., Macdonald, F. A., Schmitz, M. D. and Crowley, J. L. New age constraints on the break-up of Rodinia and amalgamation of southwestern Gondwana from the Choquequirao Formation in southwestern Peru Malay, B. C., Braid, J. A., Archibald, D. B. and McFarlane, C. R. M. Depositional environment and provenance of Early Carboniferous clastic sedimentary rocks at McIsaacs Point, Nova Scotia: implications for syntectonic basin development during the formation of Pangaea Pereira, M. F., Dias da Silva, Í, Rodríguez, C., Corfu, F. and Castro, A. Visean high-K mafic–intermediate plutonic rocks of the Ossa–Morena Zone (SW Iberia): implications for regional extensional tectonics Hynes, A. and Johnston, S. Palinspastic restoration of Variscan oroclines – implications for dextral transpression and terrane affinities Freeborne, S. and Braid, J. A. Detrital zircon geochronology from the Nueva Segovia Schist, Nicaragua: evidence for the tectonic evolution of the Chortis Block? Espejo-Bautista, G., Solari, L., Maldonado, R. and Ramírez-Calderón, M. Silurian to Cretaceous geological evolution of southern Mexico and its connection to the assembly and break-up of Western Equatorial Pangaea: geochronological constraints from the northern Sierra de Juárez Complex Ramos, V. A. Hans Keidel and Alexander du Toit’s relationship and its impact on Wegener’s Continental Drift hypothesis Index

Note: Contents List of Figures List of Tables List of Symbols 1 Introduction 1.1 The Dawn Mission 1.1.1 Mission Overview 1.1.2 The Asteroid Belt 1.1.3 The Geology of Vesta 1.1.4 The Geology of Ceres 1.2 Motivation 1.3 Structure of the Thesis 2 Background and Methods 2.1 Planetary Mapping 2.1.1 Impact Cratering 2.1.1.1 The Impact Process 2.1.1.2 Classification of Impact Crater Morphologies 2.1.1.3 Secondary Craters 2.1.1.4 Ejecta Blocks 2.1.1.5 The Age of Planetary Surfaces 2.2 Ballistics on Planetary Bodies 2.2.1 The Coriolis Effect 2.2.2 The Fate of Ejecta 2.2.3 Derivation of Elliptical Trajectories 2.2.4 Calculation of Particle Landing Locations in a Rotating Planetary System 2.2.5 Start Particle Configuration 2.2.6 Crater Scaling 2.2.7 Impact Angle and Ejection Velocity for an Oblique Impact 2.2.8 Particle Diameter 2.3 Power-Law Distributions 3 Geologic Mapping of the Ac-11 Sintana Quadrangle : Assessing Diverse Crater Morphologies 3.1 Introduction and Geologic Setting 3.2 Data and Methodology 3.3 Results 3.3.1 Topography and Structural Features 3.3.2 Map Units 3.3.3 Cratered Terrain (crt) 3.3.4 Crater Materials (c, cb) 3.3.5 Lobate Materials (1, lh, Is) 3.3.6 Smooth Crater Floor Material (cfs, cfsd) 3.3.7 Crater Terrace Material (ct) 3.3.8 Talus Material (ta) 3.3.9 Central Peak Material (cep) 3.4 Highlighted Craters 3.4.1 Sintana Crater 3.4.2 Braciaca Crater 3.4.3 Tupo Crater 3.5 Geologic Evolution 3.6 Discussion 3.7 Conclusion 4 Rotational Effects on Ceres’ Ejecta Deposition 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Results 4.2.1 Rotational Effects on Ceres and Mars 4.2.2 Parameters of Ejecta Deposition on Ceres 4.2.2.1 Crater Latitude 4.2.2.2 Crater Diameter 4.2.2.3 Impact Geometry 4.2.2.3.1 Impact Angle 4.2.2.3.2 Projectile Incoming Direction 4.2.3 Craters on Ceres 4.2.4 Estimation of Particle Sizes 4.3 Discussion 5 Global and Local Re-impact and Velocity Regime of Ballistic Ejecta of Boulder Craters on Ceres 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Methods 5.2.1 Measurement and Analysis of Boulder and Crater Diameters 5.2.2 Size-Frequency Distributions 5.2.3 Scaling Laws 5.2.4 Elliptical Trajectories 5.2.5 Global and Local Re-impact Regime on a Rotating Body 5.3 Results 5.3.1 Crater Morphology and Boulder Distribution 5.3.2 Boulder Size Distribution 5.3.3 Global Velocity and Re-impact Scheme 5.3.4 The Effect of Input Parameters on the Global Velocity and Re-impact Scheme 5.3.5 Boulder Ejection Velocities 5.4 Discussion and Conclusion 6 Summary Appendix: Code for Landing SiteCalculation References