ALBERT

Note: Thanks ; Background ; Childhood and Adolescence ; Astronomy ; Cartographical Work in Finland Before Heiskanen ; The Finnish Geodetic Institute 1918-1928 ; In the University of Technology ; Geoid Research ; Research Into Isostasy ; Years in America ; Work for Finnishness ; A Respected Person ; Sources ; V.A. Heiskanen's Publications

Note: Contents: Preface. - 1 Overview. - 1.1 Introduction. - 1.2 Definitions of atmospheric scales. - 1.3 Energy generation and scale interactions. - 1.4 Predictability. - References. - 2 Governing equations for mesoscale motions. - 2.1 Introduction. - 2.2 Derivation of the governing equations. - 2.3 Approximations to the governing equations. - References. - Problems. - 3 Basic wave dynamics. - 3.1 Introduction. - 3.2 Basic wave properties. - 3.3 Soundwaves. - 3.4 Shallow water waves. - 3.5 Pure gravity waves. - 3.6 Inertia-gravity waves. - 3.7 Wave reflection levels. - 3.8 Critical levels. - Appendix 3.1. - References. - Problems. - 4 Mesoscale wave generation and maintenance. - 4.1 Introduction. - 4.2 Wave generation mechanisms. - 4.2.1 Density impulses and moist convection. - 4.2.2 Mesoscale instabilities. - 4.2.3 Geostrophic adjustment. - 4.2.4 Nonlinear interactions. - 4.3 Wave maintenance mechanisms. - 4.3.1 Linear wave ducting mechanism. - 4.3.2 Solitary wave mechanism. - 4.3.3 Wave-CISK mechanism. - 4.4 Energy propagation and momentum flux. - References. - Problems. - 5 Orographically forced flows. - 5.1 Flows over two-dimensional sinusoidal mountains. - 5.2 Flows over two-dimensional isolated mountains. - 5.2.1 Uniform basic flow. - 5.2.2 Basic flow with variable Scorer parameter. - 5.2.3 Trapped lee waves. - 5.3 Nonlinear flows over two-dimensional mountains. - 5.3.1 Nonlinear flow regimes. - 5.3.2 Generation of severe downslope winds. - 5.4 Flows over three-dimensional mountains. - 5.4.1 Linear theory. - 5.4.2 Generation of lee vortices. - 5.5 Flows over larger mesoscale mountains. - 5.5.1 Rotational effects. - 5.5.2 Lee cyclogenesis. - 5.5.3 Orographic influence on cyclone track. - 5.6 Other orographic effects. - 5.6.1 Effects on frontal passage. - 5.6.2 Coastally trapped disturbances. - 5.6.3 Cold-air damming. - 5.6.4 Gap flow. - Appendix 5.1. - References. - Problems. - 6 Thermally forced flows. - 6.1 Two-dimensional flows. - 6.1.1 Steady flows over a sinusoidal heat source. - 6.1.2 Steady flows over an isolated heat source. - 6.2 Transient flows. - 6.2.1 Flow responses to pulse heating. - 6.2.2 Flow responses to steady heating. - 6.3 Applications to mesoscale circulations. - 6.3.1 Density current formation and propagation. - 6.3.2 Heat island circulations. - 6.3.3 Moist convection. - 6.3.4 Gravity wave generation and propagation. - 6.4 Effects of shear, three dimensionality, and rotation. - 6.4.1 Two-dimensional shear flows. - 6.4.2 Three-dimensional nonrotating flows. - 6.4.3 Three-dimensional rotating flows. - 6.5 Dynamics of sea and land breezes. - 6.5.1 Linear theories. - 6.5.2 Nonlinear numerical studies. - 6.6 Dynamics of mountain-plains solenoidal circulations. - Appendix 6.1. - References. - Problems. - 7 Mesoscale instabilities. - 7.1 Wave energy transfer through instabilities. - 7.2 Integral theorems of stratified flow. - 7.2.1 Governing equations. - 7.2.2 Miles' theorem. - 7.2.3 Howard's semicircle theorem. - 7.3 Static, conditional, and potential instabilities. - 7.3.1 Static instability. - 7.3.2 Conditional instability. - 7.3.3 Potential instability. - 7.4 Kelvin-Helmholtz instability. - 7.5 Inertial instability. - 7.6 Symmetric instability. - 7.6.1 Dry symmetric instability. - 7.6.2 Moist symmetric instability. - 7.7 Baroclinic instability. - References. - Problems. - 8 Isolated convective storms. - 8.1 Dynamics of single-cell storms and downbursts. - 8.2 Dynamics of multicell storms. - 8.3 Effects of shear and buoyancy. - 8.3.1 Effects of shear on cold outflow. - 8.3.2 Effects of buoyancy. - 8.4 Dynamics of supercell storms. - 8.4.1 General characteristics. - 8.4.2 Effects of unidirectional shear. - 8.4.3 Storm splitting. - 8.4.4 Storm rotation and propagation. - 8.4.5 Effects of directional shear. - 8.5 Tornado dynamics. - 8.5.1 Supercell tornadogenesis. - 8.5.2 Nonsupercell tornadogenesis. - 8.5.3 Tornado vortex dynamics. - References. - Problems. - 9 Mesoscale convective systems. - 9.1 Squall lines and rainbands. - 9.1.1 Squall line classifications. - 9.1.2 Formation mechanisms. - 9.1.3 Maintenance mechanisms. - 9.1.4 Squall line movement. - 9.1.5 Rainbands. - 9.2 Mesoscale convective complexes. - 9.2.1 General characteristics. - 9.2.2 Formation and development mechanisms. - 9.3 Tropical cyclones. - 9.3.1 General characteristics. - 9.3.2 Tropical cyclogenesis. - 9.3.3 Intensity and mesoscale structure. - 9.3.4 Tropical cyclone movement. - References. - Problems. - 10 Dynamics of fronts and jet streaks. - 10.1 Kinematics of frontogenesis. - 10.2 Dynamics of two-dimensional frontogenesis. - 10.2.1 Geostrophic momentum approximation. - 10.2.2 Frontogenesis and cross-frontal circulations. - 10.3 Frontogenesis and baroclinic waves. - 10.4 Moist and frictional effects on frontogenesis. - 10.5 Other types of fronts. - 10.5.1 Upper-level frontogenesis. - 10.5.2 Drylines. - 10.6 Jet streak dynamics. - 10.6.1 Upper-level jet streaks. - 10.6.2 Low-level jets. - References. - Problems. - 11 Dynamics of orographic precipitation. - 11.1 Orographic influence on climatological distribution of precipitation. - 11.2 Orographic modification of preexisting disturbances. - 11.2.1 Passage of troughs. - 11.2.2 Passage of midlatitude cyclones and fronts. - 11.2.3 Passage of tropical cyclones. - 11.2.4 Common ingredients of orographic precipitation. - 11.3 Formation and enhancement mechanisms. - 11.3.1 Stable ascent mechanism. - 11.3.2 Release of moist instabilities. - 11.3.3 Effects of mountain geometry. - 11.3.4 Combined thermal and orographic forcing. - 11.3.5 Seeder-feeder mechanism. - 11.3.6 Dynamical-microphysical interaction mechanism. - 11.4 Control parameters and moist flow regimes. - 11.4.1 Control parameters. - 11.4.2 Moist flow regimes. - References. - 12 Basic numerical methods. - 12.1 Introduction. - 12.2 Finite difference approximations of derivatives. - 12.3 Finite difference approximations of the advection equation. - 12.3.1 Two-time-level schemes. - 12.3.2 Three-time-level schemes. - 12.4 Implicit schemes. - 12.5 Semi-Lagrangian methods. - Appendix 12.1. - References. - Problems. - Modeling projects. - 13 Numerical modeling of geophysical fluid systems. - 13.1 Grid systems and vertical coordinates. - 13.1.1 Grid systems. - 13.1.2 Vertical coordinates. - 13.2 Boundary conditions. - 13.2.1 Lateral boundary conditions. - 13.2.2 Upper boundary conditions. - 13.2.3 Lower boundary conditions. - 13.3 Initial conditions and data assimilation. - 13.4 Nonlinear aliasing and instability. - 13.5 Modeling a stratified fluid system. - 13.6 Predictability and ensemble forecasting. - References. - Problems. - Modeling project. - 14 Parameterizations of physical processes. - 14.1 Reynolds averaging. - 14.2 Parameterization of planetary boundary layer processes. - 14.2.1 Parameterization of the surface layer. - 14.2.2 Parameterization of the PBL. - 14.3 Parameterization of moist processes. - 14.3.1 Parameterization of microphysical processes. - 14.3.2 Cumulus parameterization. - 14.4 Parameterizations of radiative transfer processes. - 14.4.1 Introduction. - 14.4.2 Longwave radiation. - 14.4.3 Shortwave radiation. - References. - Problems. - Appendices. - A. List of symbols. - B. Nomenclature. - Index.

Note: Contents: 1. Introduction ; Part I. Background and Fundamentals: 2. Regional climate ; 3. History of downscaling ; 4. Rationale of downscaling ; 5. User needs ; 6. Mathematical and statistical methods ; 7. Reference observations ; 8. Climate modelling ; 9. Uncertainties ; Part II. Statistical Downscaling Concepts and Methods: 10. Structure of statistical downscaling methods ; 11. Perfect prognosis ; 12. Model output statistics ; 13. Weather generators ; 14. Other approaches ; Part III. Downscaling in Practice and Outlook: 15. Evaluation ; 16. Performance of statistical downscaling ; 17. A regional modelling debate ; 18. Use of downscaling in practice ; 19. Outlook ; Appendix A ; Appendix B

Note: CONTENTS PREFACE 1. Snow Crystal Science Complex Symmetry A Brief History of Snow Crystal Science Twenty-First-Century Snowflakes No Two Alike? 2. Ice Crystal Structure Ice Crystallography Surface Premelting Ice Energetics Molecular Dynamics Simulations Surface Energy Considerations Snow Crystal Twinning 3. Diffusion-Limited Growth Faceting and Branching Free Dendrites Diffusion in Snow Crystal Growth The Spherical Solution Additional Analytic Solutions Solvability Theory Snow Crystal Aerodynamics Order and Chaos 4. Attachment Kinetics Ice Kinetics Large-Facet Attachment Kinetics Structure-Dependent Attachment Kinetics Explaining the Nakaya Diagram The Morphological Nexus at —5°C Snow Crystal Cartography Dislocation-Mediated Growth Chemical Vapor Effects 5. Computational Snow Crystals A Progression of Snow Crystal Models Spherical Cellular Automata Cylindrically Symmetric Cellular Automata Three-Dimensional Cellular Automata 6. Laboratory Snow Crystals Free-Fall Snow Crystals Substrate Support Levitation Continuous Diffusion Chambers Snow Crystal Imaging 7. Simple Ice Prisms Precision Ice Growth Measurements A Tale of Two Experiments Simple-Prism Convergence 8. Electric Ice Needles Snowflake on a Stick E-Needle Formation An E-Needle Dual Diffusion Chamber The Nakaya Diagram on E-Needles Simplest E-Needle Growth An Analysis Example: E-Needles at —15°C E-Needle Vignettes 9. Designer Snow Crystals The Plate-on-Pedestal Method [llumination and Postprocessing PoP Growth Behaviors Identical-Twin Snow Crystals PoP Art 10. Natural Snowflakes Snowflake Watching 11. Snowflake Photography Finding Snowflakes Optics and Lenses Illumination Matters APPENDIX — LIST OF VARIABLES AND PHYSICAL CONSTANTS BIBLIOGRAPHY INDEX

Note: Contents Preface Background: what you need to know before you start 1 Gravity on Earth: the inescapable force Galileo: the beginnings of the science of gravity The acceleration of gravity is uniform Trajectories of cannonballs Galileo: the first relativist 2 And then came Newton: gravity takes center stage The second law: weight and mass The third law, and its loophole Preview: Newton's gravity Action at a distance The new equivalence principle The gravitational redshift of light Gravity slows time Summing up 3 Satellites: what goes up doesn't always come down Taking motion apart Acceleration, and how to change your weight Getting into orbit 4 The Solar System: a triumph for Newtonian gravity How to invent Newton's law for the acceleration of gravity The orbits of the planets described by Newton's law of gravity What is the value of G? Kepler's laws The Sun has a little orbit of its own Geostationary satellites The gravitational attraction of spherical objects Playing with the orbit program Black holes before 1800 Light is deflected by the Sun's gravity 5 Tides and tidal forces: the real signature of gravity Tidal forces in free fall Ocean tides Tides from the Sun Spring and neap tides What the tidal forces do to the oceans, the Earth, and the Moon Tides elsewhere in astronomy Jupiter gives Mercury's story another twist Triumph of Newtonian gravity: the prediction of Neptune Tiny flaw of Newtonian gravity: Mercury's perihelion motion 6 Interplanetary travel: the cosmic roller-coaster Getting away from the Earth Plain old momentum, and how rockets use it Energy, and how planets never lose it Getting to another planet The principle of the slingshot Using Jupiter to reach the outer planets Slinging towards the Sun Force and energy: how to change the energy of a body Time and energy 7 Atmospheres: keeping planets covered In the beginning . . . ... was the greenhouse . . . ... and then came Darwin The ones that get away The Earth's atmosphere Pressure beats gravity: Archimedes buoys up balloons Pressure beats gravity again: Bernoulli lifts airplanes Helium balloons and the equivalence principle Absolute zero: the coldest temperature of all Why there is a coldest temperature: the random nature of heat The ideal gas An atmosphere at constant temperature The Earth's atmosphere The atmospheres of other planets Quantum theory and absolute zero 8 Gravity in the Sun: keeping the heat on Sunburn shows that light comes in packets, called photons A gas made of photons Einstein in 1905 Gravity keeps the Sun round The Sun is one big atmosphere The Standard Model of the Sun The structure of the Sun How photons randomly 'walk' through the Sun Rotation keeps the Sun going around Solar seismology: the ringing Sun 9 Reaching for the stars: the emptiness of outer space Leaping out of the Solar System How far away are the stars? How bright are stars? Astronomers' units for brightness Standard candles: using brightness to measure distance 10 The colors of stars: why they are black (bodies) The colors of stars Why stars are black bodies The color of a black body Relation between color and temperature: greenhouses again Spectral lines: the fingerprint of a star How big stars are: color and distance tell us the size But why are stars as hot as they are, and no hotter? Looking ahead 11 Stars at work: factories for the Universe Star light, star bright . . . ... first star I see tonight Cooking up the elements The solar neutrino problem Life came from the stars, but would you have bet on it? 12 Birth to death: the life cycle of the stars Starbirth The gravitational thermostat The main sequence Giants Degenerate stars: what happens when the nuclear fire goes out The Chandrasekhar mass: white dwarfs can't get too heavy Neutron stars Fire or ice: supernova or white dwarf Death by disintegration What is left behind: cinders and seeds 13 Binary stars: tidal forces on a huge scale Looking at binaries The orbit of a binary Planetary perturbations Tidal forces in binary systems Accretion disks in binaries Compact-object binaries Fun with the three-body problem 14 Galaxies: atoms in the Universe Globular clusters: minigalaxies within galaxies Describing galaxies Galaxies are speeding apart Measuring the Universe: the distances between galaxies Most of the Universe is missing! Gangs of galaxies The missing mass Radio galaxies: the monster is a giant black hole Quasars: feeding the monster Galaxy formation: how did it all start? Did it all start? 15 Physics at speed: Einstein stands on Galileo's shoulders Fast motion means relativity• Relativity is special The Michelson-Morley experiment: light presents a puzzle Michelson's interferometer: the relativity instrument Special relativity: general consequences The extra inertia of pressure Conclusions 16 Relating to Einstein: logic and experiment in relativity Nothing can travel faster than light Light cannot be made to stand still Clocks run slower when they move The length of an object contracts along its motion Loss of simultaneity The mass of an object increases with its speed Energy is equivalent to mass Photons have zero rest-mass Consistency of relativity: the twin paradox saves the world Relativity and the real world 17 Spacetime geometry: finding out what is not relative Gravity in general relativity is . . . ... geometry Spacetime: time and space are inseparable Relativity of time in the spacetime diagram Time dethroned . . . ... and the metric reigns supreme! The geometry of relativity Proper measures of time and distance Equivalence principle: the road to curvature . .. ... is a geodesic The equivalence principle: spacetime is smooth 18 Einstein's gravity: Einstein climbs onto Newton's shoulders Driving from Atlanta to Alaska, or from Cape Town to Cairo Dimpled and wiggly: describing any surface Newtonian gravity as the curvature of time Do the planets follow the geodesics of this time-curvature? How to define the conserved energy of a particle The deflection of light: space has to be curved, too Space curvature is a critical test of general relativity How Einstein knew he was right: Mercury's orbital precession Weak gravity, strong gravity 19 Einstein's recipe: fashioning the geometry of gravity Einstein's kitchen: the ingredients Einstein's kitchen: the active gravitational mass comes first Einstein's kitchen: the recipe for curving time Einstein's kitchen: the recipe for curving space Einstein's kitchen: the recipe for gravitomagnetism The geometry of gravitomagnetism Gyroscopes, Lense, Thirring, and Mach The cosmological constant: making use of negative pressure The big picture: all the field equations The search for simplicity General relativity Looking ahead 20 Neutron stars: laboratories of strong gravity Nuclear pudding: the density of a neutron star It takes a whole star to do the work of 100 neutrons What would a neutron star look like? Where should astronomers look for neutron stars? Pulsars: neutron stars that advertise themselves The mystery of the way pulsars emit radiation The rotation rate of pulsars and how it changes Puzzles about the rotation of pulsars Pulsars in binary systems X-ray binary neutron stars Gamma-ray bursts: deaths of neutron stars? The relativistic strncture of a neutron star The relation of mass to radius for neutron stars Neutron stars as physics labs 21 Black holes: gravity's one-way street The first black hole What black holes can do - to photons The gravitational redshift Danger: horizon! Getting away from it all Singularities, naked or otherwise What black holes can do ... to orbits Making a black hole: the bigger, the easier Inside the black hole Disturbed black holes Limits on the possible The uniqueness of the black hole Spinning black holes drag everything with them The naked truth about fast black holes Mining the energy reservoir of a spinning black hole Accretion onto black holes The signature of the supermassive black hole in MCG-6-30-15 Wormholes: space and time tubes Hawki

Note: 1 Introduction to Permutations, Markov Chains, and Partitions ; 1.1 Permutations and Their Matrix Representations ; 1.2 Permutation Orbits and Fixed Points ; 1.3 Fixed Points and the Inclusion-Exclusion Principle ; 1.4 Finite Markov Chains ; 1.5 Birkhoff–von Neumann Theorem ; 1.6 Generating Functions ; 1.7 Partitions ; 1.7.1 Compositions ; 1.7.2 Multi-set Permutations ; 1.7.3 Weak Partitions ; 1.7.4 Integer Partitions ; 1.8 Concluding Remarks and Further Reading ; 2 Worth Another Binary Relation: Graphs ; 2.1 Binary Relations and Their Graphs ; 2.2 Representation of Graphs by Matrices ; 2.3 Algebraic Properties of Adjacency Operators ; 2.4 Perron–Frobenius Theory for Adjacency Matrices ; 2.5 Spectral Decomposition of Adjacency Operators ; 2.6 Adjacency and Walks on a Graph ; 2.7 Principal Invariants of the Graph Adjacency Matrix ; 2.8 Euler Characteristic and Genus of a Graph ; 2.9 Euler Characteristics and Genus of Complex Networks ; 2.10 Coloring a Graph ; 2.11 Shortest Paths in a Graph ; 2.12 Concluding Remarks and Further Reading ; 3 Permutations Sieved Through Adjacency: Graph Automorphisms ; 3.1 Graph Automorphisms ; 3.2 Nontrivial Graph Automorphisms and the Structure of Eigenvectors of the Adjacency Matrix ; 3.3 Automorphism Invariant Linear Functions of a Graph ; 3.3.1 Automorphism Invariant Stochastic Processes ; 3.3.2 Automorphism Invariant Harmonic Functions ; 3.4 Relations Between Eigenvalues of Automorphism Invariant Linear Functions ; 3.5 Summary ; 4 Exploring Undirected Graphs by Random Walks ; 4.1 Graphs as Discrete Time Dynamical Systems ; 4.2 Generating Functions of the Transition Probabilities ; 4.3 Cayley-Hamilton’s Theorem for RandomWalks ; 4.4 Stationary Distribution and Recurrence Time of RandomWalks ; 4.5 Entropy of RandomWalks Defined on a Graph ; 4.6 Hyperbolic Embeddings of Graphs by Transition Eigenvectors ; 4.7 Exploring the Shape of a Graph by Random Currents ; 4.8 Summary ; 5 Embedding of Graphs in Probabilistic Euclidean Space ; 5.1 Methods of Generalized Inverses in the Study of Graphs ; 5.2 Affine Probabilistic Geometry of Pseudo-inverses ; 5.3 Reduction to Euclidean Metric Geometry ; 5.4 Probabilistic Interpretation of Euclidean Geometry ; 5.5 Probabilistic Embedding of Simple Graphs ; 5.6 Group Generalized Inverse of the Laplace Operator for Directed Graphs ; 5.7 Summary ; 6 RandomWalks and Electric Resistance Networks ; 6.1 Electric Resistance Network and its Probabilistic Interpretation ; 6.2 Dissipation and Effective Resistance in Electric Resistance Networks ; 6.3 Effective Resistance is Bounded Above by the Shortest Path Distance ; 6.4 Kirchhoff and Wiener Indexes of a Graph ; 6.5 Relation Between Effective Resistances and Commute Times ; 6.6 Summary ; 7 Random Walks and Diffusions on Directed Graphs and Interacting Networks ; 7.1 RandomWalks on Directed Graphs ; 7.1.1 A Time Forward RandomWalk ; 7.1.2 Backward Time RandomWalks ; 7.1.3 Stationary Distributions of Random Walks on Directed Graphs ; 7.2 Laplace Operator Defined on Aperiodic Strongly Connected Directed Graphs ; 7.2.1 Bi-orthogonal Decomposition of Random Walks Defined on Strongly Connected Directed Graphs ; 7.3 Spectral Analysis of Self-adjoint Operators Defined on Directed Graphs ; 7.4 Self-adjoint Operators Defined on Interacting Networks ; 7.5 Summary ; 8 Structural Analysis of Networks and Databases ; 8.1 Structure and Function in Complex Networks and Databases ; 8.2 Graph Cut Problems ; 8.2.1 Weakly Connected Graph Components ; 8.2.2 Graph Partitioning Objectives as Trace Optimization Problems ; 8.3 Markov Chains Estimate Land Value in Cities ; 8.3.1 Spatial Networks of Urban Environments ; 8.3.2 Spectra of Cities ; 8.3.3 First-passage Times to Ghettos ; 8.3.4 RandomWalks Estimate Land Value in Manhattan ; 8.4 Unraveling the Tangles of Language Evolution ; 8.4.1 Applying Phylogenetic Methods to Language Taxonomies ; 8.4.2 The Data Set We Have Used ; 8.4.3 The Relations Among Languages Encoded in the Matrix of Lexical Distances ; 8.4.4 The Structural Component Analysis on Language Data ; 8.4.5 Principal Structural Components of the Lexical Distance Data ; 8.4.6 Geometric Representation of the Indo-European Family ; 8.4.7 In Search of Lost Time ; 8.4.8 Evidence for Proto-Indo-Europeans ; 8.4.9 In Search of Polynesian Origins ; 8.4.10 Geometric Representation of Malagasy Dialects ; 8.4.11 Austronesian Languages Riding an Express Train ; 8.5 Markov Chain Analysis of Musical Dice Games ; 8.5.1 Musical Dice Game as a Markov Chain ; 8.5.2 Encoding of a Discrete Model of Music (MIDI) into a Transition Matrix ; 8.5.3 Musical Dice Game as a Generalized Communication Process ; 8.5.4 First Passage Times to Notes Resolve Tonality of Musical Dice Games ; 8.5.5 First Passage Times to Notes Feature a Composer ; 8.6 Summary ; 9 When Feedbacks Matter: Epidemics, Synchronization, and Self-regulation in Complex Networks ; 9.1 Susceptible-Infected-Susceptible Models in Epidemics ; 9.1.1 Dynamical Equation of the Epidemic Spreading in Scale Free Networks ; 9.1.2 Simplified Equation for Low Infection Rates ; 9.1.3 Stationary Solution of the Epidemic Equation for Low Infection Rates ; 9.1.4 Dynamical Solution of the Evolution Equation for Low Infection Rates ; 9.2 Epidemic Spreading in Evolutionary Scale Free Networks ; 9.3 Transitions to Intermittency and Collective Behavior in Randomly Coupled Map Networks ; 9.3.1 The Model of Random Networks of Coupled Maps ; 9.3.2 Spatiotemporal Intermittency and Collective Behavior ; 9.3.3 The Evolution of G(N,k) with k ; 9.4 Thermodynamics of Random Networks of Coupled Maps ; 9.5 Large Gene Expression Regulatory Networks ; 9.5.1 A Model of a Large Gene Expression Regulatory Networks ; 9.5.2 Numerical Analysis of Large Gene Expression Regulatory Networks ; 9.6 Mean Field Approach to the Large Transcription Regulatory Networks ; 9.7 Summary ; 10 Critical Phenomena on Large Graphs with Regular Subgraphs ; 10.1 Description of the Model and the Results ; 10.2 The Regular Subgraphs Viewed as Riemann Surfaces ; 10.3 Nonlinear Diffusions Through Complex Networks ; 10.4 Diffusion as a Generalized Brownian Motion ; 10.5 Scaling of a Scalar Field Coupled to a Complex Network ; 10.6 Summary ; References ; Glossary of Graph Theory ; Index

Note: Contents Contributors Preface 1. Why dissolved organics matter: Take 3—The messiness of nature / Cindy Lee 1.1 Introduction 1.2 How different are DOC and POC sorption processes, and do these differences affect their biological lability and thus concentration in the ocean? 1.3 How important is the physical state of marine organic compounds to their availability to organisms—Who eats what? 1.4 How important are small-scale physical-biological interactions to DOC concentrations and compositions? 1.5 Quantification of DOC input/removal from sediments, submarine volcanoes, hydrothermal vents, and submarine groundwater discharge 1.6 Is photochemistry as important as microbial degradation in marine aerosols? 1.7 Is DOC concentration increasing or decreasing with climate change? 1.8 One more thought… Acknowledgments References 2. Chemical characterization and cycling of dissolved organic matter / Daniel Repeta and Lihini Aluwihare 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Isolation of dissolved organic matter from seawater 2.3 Biopolymers in HMWDOM 2.4 Humic substances in solid-phase extractable DOM (SPE-DOM) 2.5 Links between DOM composition and cycling 2.6 Future research Acknowledgments References 3. A witches’ brew: Dissolved metabolites in seawater / Krista Longnecker, Melissa C. Kido Soule, and Elizabeth B. Kujawinski 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Analytical methods to detect metabolites and small molecules in seawater 3.3 Biogeochemical significance of metabolites and small molecules in seawater 3.4 Summary Acknowledgments References 4. Tracing DOM in the ocean with UV-visible spectroscopy / Colin A. Stedmon and Youhei Yamashita 4.1 Introduction 4.2 UV-visible spectroscopy of DOM 4.3 Sources and sinks 4.4 Ocean distributions 4.5 Conclusions and future research needs Acknowledgments References 5. DOM production, removal, and transformation processes in marine systems / Craig A. Carlson, Shuting Liu, Brandon M. Stephens, and Chance J. English 5.1 Introduction 5.2 DOM production processes 5.3 DOM removal processes 5.4 DOM transformation and accumulation 5.5 The priming effect 5.6 Microbial community structure and DOM utilization 5.7 Summary and challenges Acknowledgments References 6. Sediment pore waters / David J. Burdige, Tomoko Komada, and Hussain A.N. Abdulla 6.1 Preface 6.2 Introduction 6.3 Composition and dynamics of bulk pore water DOM 6.4 Composition and dynamics of DOM at the compound and compound-class levels 6.5 Modeling DOM cycling in marine sediments 6.6 Controls on DOM concentrations in sediments 6.7 The role of benthic DOM fluxes in the oceanic carbon and nitrogen cycles 6.8 Concluding thoughts References 7. Dissolved organic matter in submarine hydrothermal systems / Susan Q. Lang 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Processes affecting organic compositions 7.3 Isotopic changes to DOM during hydrothermal circulation 7.4 Concentrations and compositions of hydrothermal DOM 7.5 Potential impacts on the molecular composition of seawater DOM 7.6 Impacts likely differ across ocean basins 7.7 Major unknowns Acknowledgments References 8. Dissolved organic nitrogen / Deborah A. Bronk, Rachel E. Sipler, Robert T. Letscher, and Matthew D. McCarthy 8.1 Introduction 8.2 DON concentrations and distributions 8.3 The semilabile and refractory DON pools 8.4 The labile DON pool—Sources of DON 8.5 The labile DON pool—Sinks for DON Acknowledgments References 9. Biogeochemistry of organic phosphorus in the sea: Advances, challenges, and opportunities / David M. Karl and Karin M. Björkman 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Methodology: DOP quantification and pool characterization 9.3 Selected case studies 9.4 Prospectus for the future Acknowledgments References 10. Organic metal-binding ligands in the dissolved organic matter pool / Kristen N. Buck and Randelle M. Bundy 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Organic metal-binding ligand composition 10.3 Metal-binding ligand distributions in the global ocean 10.4 Conclusions and future directions Acknowledgments References 11. Marine photochemistry of organic matter: Processes and impacts / David J. Kieber, Leanne C. Powers, Aron Stubbins, and William L. Miller 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Caveats and cautionary notes 11.3 Impact of photochemistry on elemental cycles 11.4 DOM photolability spectrum and fate of terrigenous DOM in the ocean 11.5 Photochemical environments, intermediates, and reactions 11.6 Modeling photochemical rates 11.7 Future directions Acknowledgments References 12. The volatile organic carbon component of dissolved organic matter in the ocean / Kimberly H. Halsey, Vaishnavi G. Padaki, and Stephen Giovannoni 12.1 Introduction 12.2 The chemical nature of VOCs 12.3 VOC–taxonomy relationships 12.4 VOC production and photosynthetic metabolism 12.5 Summary points Acknowledgments References 13. Reasons behind the long-term stability of dissolved organic matter / Thorsten Dittmar and Sinikka T. Lennartz 13.1 Introduction: The paradox of DOM persistence 13.2 The environment hypothesis 13.3 The intrinsic recalcitrance hypothesis 13.4 The molecular diversity or dilution hypothesis 13.5 The unifying ecology of molecules concept 13.6 Implications in the context of climate change References 14. Riverine DOM / Robert G.M. Spencer and Peter A. Raymond 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Land to ocean transport 14.3 Riverine DOM composition 14.4 The human footprint Acknowledgments References 15. Dissolved organic matter in the Arctic Ocean / Rainer M.W. Amon, Karl Kaiser, and Anja Engel 15.1 Introduction 15.2 Sources of DOM to the Arctic Ocean 15.3 Composition of DOM within the Arctic Ocean 15.4 DOM distribution and exchanges with subpolar oceans Acknowledgments References 16. Dissolved organic carbon in the South China Sea / Minhan Dai, Xiaolin Li, Yao Zhang, Feifei Meng, and Zhixuan Wang 16.1 Introduction 16.2 DOC distribution in the South China Sea 16.3 DOC production, transformation, and consumption 16.4 DOC stocks and fluxes 16.5 Summary and perspectives Acknowledgments References Glossary 17. Dynamics of dissolved organic carbon in the global ocean / Dennis A. Hansell, Cristina Romera-Castillo, and Chelsea N. Lopez 17.1 Introduction 17.2 Global distribution 17.3 Net DOC production in the upper ocean 17.4 DOC export with overturning circulation 17.5 Deep ocean DOC enrichment due to sinking biogenic particles 17.6 Current understanding and opportunities for advancement Acknowledgments References 18. Modeling DOM from the ecosystem to global scales / Naomi M. Levine and Timothy DeVries 18.1 Introduction 18.2 Modeling carbon and energy flows 18.3 Modeling more complex organic matter dynamics 18.4 Data-constrained models of DOC cycling 18.5 Global distribution, inventories, and production rates of DOC 18.6 Carbon export and sequestration by DOC 18.7 Areas for future advancement in DOM modeling Acknowledgments References Index

Note: Contents 1 Introduction to Atmospheric Rivers / F. Martin Ralph, Michael D. Dettinger, Lawrence J. Schick, and Michael L. Anderson 2 Structure, Process, and Mechanism / Harald Sodemann, Heini Wernli, Peter Knippertz, Jason M. Cordeira, Francina Dominguez, Bin Guan, Huancui Hu, F. Martin Ralph, and Andreas Stohl 3 Observing and Detecting Atmospheric Rivers / F. Martin Ralph, Allen B. White, Gary A. Wick, Michael L. Anderson, and Jonathan J. Rutz 4 Global and Regional Perspectives / Jonathan J. Rutz, Bin Guan, Deniz Bozkurt, Irina V. Gorodetskaya, Alexander Gershunov, David A. Lavers, Kelly M. Mahoney, Benjamin J. Moore, William Neff, Paul J. Neiman, F. Martin Ralph, Alexandre M. Ramos, Hans Christian Steen-Larsen, Maria Tsukernik, Raúl Valenzuela, Maximiliano Viale, and Heini Wernli 5 Effects of Atmospheric Rivers / Michael D. Dettinger, David A. Lavers, Gilbert P. Compo, Irina V. Gorodetskaya, William Neff, Paul J. Neiman, Alexandre M. Ramos, Jonathan J. Rutz, Maximiliano Viale, Andrew J. Wade, and Allen B. White 6 Atmospheric River Modeling: Forecasts, Climate Simulations, and Climate Projections / Duane E. Waliser and Jason M. Cordeira 7 Applications of Knowledge and Predictions of Atmospheric Rivers / Lawrence J. Schick, Michael L. Anderson, F. Martin Ralph, Michael D. Dettinger, David A. Lavers, Florian Pappenberger, David S. Richardson, and Ervin Zsoter 8 The Future of Atmospheric River Research and Applications / F. Martin Ralph, Duane E. Waliser, Michael D. Dettinger, Jonathan J. Rutz, Michael L. Anderson, Irina V. Gorodetskaya, Bin Guan, and William Neff Index

Note: Contents: 1 Global Distribution of Lakes / M. MEYBECK. - 1 Introduction. - 2 Background Material and Approaches to Global Lake Census. - 2.1 Data Used. - 2.2 Approaches to Global Lake Census. - 3 General Laws of Lake Distribution. - 3.1 Lake Density . - 3.2 Limnic Ratio. - 4 Distribution of Lakes of Tectonic Origin. - 5 Lakes of Glacial Origin. - 5.1 Lake Densities. - 5.2 Global Deglaciated Area. - 5.3 Total Number of Glacial Lakes. - 6 Fluvial Lakes. - 7 Global Distribution of Crater Lakes. - 8 Global Distribution of Saline Lakes. - 8.1 Coastal Lagoons. - 8.2 Salinized Lakes due to Evaporation. - 9 Global Lake Distribution. - 9.1 Extrapolation Approach. - 9.2 Lake Type Approach. - 9.3 Climatic Typology Approach. - 9.4 Lake Distribution in Endorheic Areas. - 9.5 Global Dissolved Salt Distribution in Lakes. - 10 Major Changes in Global Lake Distribution in the Geological Past. - 10.1 Lake Ages. - 10.2 Historical Changes. - 10.3 Postglacial Changes. - 11 Discussion and Conclusions. - References. - 2 Hydrological Processes and the Water Budget of Lakes / T. C. WINTER. - 1 Introduction. - 2 Hydrological System with Regard to Lakes. - 2.1 Interaction of Lakes with Atmospheric Water. - 2.2 Interaction of Lakes with Surface Water. - 2.3 Interaction of Lakes with Subsurface Water. - 2.4 Change in Lake Volume. - 3 Summary. - References. - 3 Hydrological and Thermal Response of Lakes to Climate: Description and Modeling / S. W. HOSTETLER. - 1 Introduction. - 2 Hydrological Response. - 3 The Hydrological Budget. - 4 Hydrological Models. - 5 Thermal Response. - 5.1 Energy Budget and Energy Budget Models. - 5.2 Models and Modeling. - 6 Use of Models to Link Lakes with Climate Change. - 7 Input Data Sets. - 8 Sample Applications. - 9 Summary. - References. - 4 Mixing Mechanisms in Lakes / D. M. IMBODEN and A. WÜEST. - 1 Transport and Mixing. - 2 Lakes as Physical Systems. - 3 Fluid Dynamics: Mathematical Description of Advection and Diffusion. - 3.1 Equations of Fluid Motion. - 3.2 Turbulence, Reynolds' Stress, and Eddy Diffusion. - 3.3 Vertical Momentum Equation. - 3.4 Nonlocal Diffusion and Transilient Mixing. - 4 Density and Stability of Water Column. - 4.1 Equation of State of Water. - 4.2 Potential Temperature and Local Vertical Stability. - 5 Energy Fluxes: Driving Forces Behind Transport and Mixing. - 5.1 Thermal Energy. - 5.2 Potential Energy. - 5.3 Kinetic Energy. - 5.4 Turbulent Kinetic Energy Balance in Stratified Water. - 5.5 Internal Turbulent Energy Fluxes: Turbulence Cascade. - 6 Mixing Processes in Lakes. - 6.1 Waves and Mixing. - 6.2 Mixing in the Surface Layer. - 6.3 Diapycnal Mixing. - 6.4 Boundary Mixing. - 6.5 Double Diffusion. - 6.6 Isopycnal Mixing. - 7 Mixing and Its Ecological Relevance. - 7.1 Time Scales of Mixing. - 7.2 Reactive Species and Patchiness. - 7.3 Mixing and Growth: The Search for an Ecological Steering Factor. - References. - 5 Stable Isotopes of Fresh and Saline Lakes / J. R. GAT. - 1 Introduction. - 1.1 Isotope Separatio During Evaporation. - 2 Small-Area Lakes. - 2.1 Seasonal and Annual Changes. - 2.2 Deep Freshwater Lakes. - 2.3 Transient Surface-Water Bodies. - 3 Interactive and Feedback Systems. - 3.1 Network of Surface-Water Bodies. - 3.2 Recycling of Reevaporated Moisture into the Atmosphere. - 3.3 Large Lakes. - 3.4 Large-Area Lakes with Restricted Circulation. - 4 Saline Lakes. - 4.1 Isotope Hydrology of Large Salt Lakes. - 4.2 Ephemeral Salt Lakes and Sabkhas. - 5 Isotopie Paleolimnology. - 6 Conclusions: From Lakes to Oceans. - References. - 6 Exchange of Chemicals Between the Atmosphere and Lakes / P. VLAHOS, D. MACKAY, S. J. EISENREICH, and KC. HORNBUCKLE. - 1 Introduction. - 2 Air-Water Partitioning Equilibria. - 3 Diffusion Between Water and Air. - 4 Volatilization and Absorption: Double-Resistance Approach. - 5 Factors Affecting Mass-Transfer Coefficients. - 6 Partitioning of Chemical to Paniculate Matter in Air and Water. - 6.1 Air. - 6.2 Water. - 7 Atmospheric Deposition Processes. - 7.1 Dry Deposition. - 7.2 Wet Deposition. - 8 Specimen Calculation. - 8.1 Step 1: Physicochemical Properties. - 8.2 Step 2: Mass-Transfer Coefficients. - 8.3 Step 3: Sorption in Air and Water. - 8.4 Step 4: Equilibrium Status. - 8.5 Step 5: Volatilization and Deposition Rates. - 9 Role of Air-Water Exchange in Lake Mass Balances. - 10 Case Studies. - 10.1 Mass Balance on Siskiwit Lake, Isle Royale. - 10.2 Mass Balance on Lake Superior. - 10.3 Air-Water Exchange in Green Bay, Lake Michigan. - 10.4 Air-Water Exchange in Lake Superior. - 11 Conclusions. - References. - 7 Atmospheric Depositions: Impact of Acids on Lakes / W. STUMM and J. SCHNOOR. - Abstract. - 1 Introduction: Anthropogenic Generation of Acidity. - 1.1 Genesis of Acid Precipitation. - 2 Acidity and Alkalinity: Neutralizing Capacities. - 2.1 Transfer of Acidity (or Alkalinity) from Pollution Through the Atmosphere to Ecosystems. - 3 Acidification of Aquatic and Terrestrial Ecosystems. - 3.1 Disturbance of H+ Balance from Temporal or Spatial Decoupling of the Production and Mineralization of the Biomass. - 3.2 In Situ H+ Ion Neutralization in Lakes. - 3.3 Krug and Frink Revisited. - 4 Brønsted Acids and Lewis Acids: Pollution by Heavy Metals, as Influenced by Acidity. - 4.1 Cycling of Metals. - 4.2 Pb in Soils. - 5 Impact of Acidity on Ecology in Watersheds. - 5.1 Soils. - 5.2 Lakes. - 5.3 Nitrogen Saturation of Forests. - 6 Critical Loads. - 6.1 Critical Load Maps. - 6.2 Models for Critical Load Evaluation. - 7 Case Studies. - 7.1 Chemical Weathering of Crystalline Rocks in the Catchment Area of Acidic Ticino Lakes, Switzerland. - 7.2 Watershed Manipulation Project at Bear Brooks, Maine. - 8 Summary. - References. - 8 Redox-Driven Cycling of Trace Elements in Lakes / J. HAMILTON-TAYLOR and W. DAVISON. - 1 Introduction. - 2 Major Biogeochemical Cycles and Pathways. - 3 Iron and Manganese. - 3.1 Transformations and Cycling. - 3.2 Iron and Manganese Compounds as Carrier Phases. - 4 Sediment-Water Interface. - 4.1 Diffusive Flux from Sediments. - 4.2 Evidence of Little or No Diffusive Efflux from Sediments. - 4.3 Transient Remobilization. - 4.4 Diffusive Flux into Sediments. - 5 Pathways Involving Redox Reactions Directly: Case Studies. - 5.1 Arsenic. - 5.2 Chromium. - 5.3 239,240Pu. - 5.4 Selenium 6 Pathways Involving Redox Reactions Indirectly: Case Studies. - 6.1 137Cs. - 6.2 Stable Pb, 210Pb, and 210Po. - 6.3 Zinc. - 7 Summary and Conclusions. - References. - 9 Comparative Geochemistry of Marine Saline Lakes / F. T. MACKENZIE, S. VINK, R. WOLLAST, and L. CHOU. - 1 Introduction. - 2 General Characteristics of Marine Saline Lakes. - 3 Comparative Sediment-Pore-Water Reactions. - 3.1 Mangrove Lake, Bermuda. - 3.2 Solar Lake, Sinai. - 4 Conclusions. - References. - 10 Organic Matter Accumulation Records in Lake Sediments / P. A. MEYERS and R. ISHIWATARI. - 1 Introduction. - 1.1 Significance of Organic Matter in Lake Sediments. - 1.2 Origins of Organic Matter to Lake Sediments. - 1.3 Alterations of Organic Matter During Deposition. - 1.4 Similarities and Differences Between Organic Matter in Sediments of Lakes and Oceans. - 1.5 Dating of Lake-Sediment Records. - 2 Indicators of Sources and Alterations of Total Organic Matter in Lake Sediments. - 2.1 Source Information Preserved in C/N Ratios of Sedimentary Organic Matter. - 2.2 Source Information from Carbon-Stable Isotopic Compositions. - 2.3 Source Information from Nitrogen-Stable Isotopic Compositions. - 3 Origin and Alterations of Humic Substances. - 4 Sources and Alterations of Lipid Biomarkers. - 4.1 Alteration of Lipids During Deposition. - 4.2 Changes in Sources vs Selective Diagenesis. - 4.3 Effects of Sediment Grain Size on Geolipid Compositions. - 4.4 Source Records of Alkanes in Lake Sediments. - 4.5 Preserv