ALBERT

Note: Contents Foreword by the Rt. Hon. Margaret Thatcher, OM, PC, FRS Preface A note for the reader 1 Introduction Endnote 2 The science of the early explorations 2.1 The scientific and technological background 2.2 Edmond Halley 2.3 Terra Australis lncognita and the theoretical geographers 2.4 The voyages of James Cook 2.5 The voyage of Thaddeus Bellingshausen 2.6 Explorations by sealers 2. 7 William Scores by: pioneer polar scientist Endnotes 3 The national expeditions of 1828 to 1843 3.1 The scientific and social background 3.2 The United States exploring expedition 3.3 The French expedition 3.4 Geodesy and the visit of HMS Chanticleer to Deception Island 3.5 'The magnetic crusade' 3.6 The Antarctic voyage of HMS Erebus and HMS Terror 3.7 Comment on the mid-nineteenth century expeditions Endnotes 4 Averted interest and consolidation 4.1 The mid-nineteenth century view of Antarctica 4.2 Maury's campaign for an expedition south 4.3 The rise of oceanography and Challenger's incursion into Antarctic waters 4.4 Neumayer and the growth of German interest in the Antarctic 4.5 Weyprecht and the First International Polar Year 4.6 Reconnaissances by whalers 4.7 Growing interest among scientists 4.8 The voyages of the Belgica, Valdivia and Southern Cross 4.9 Naval tradition versus science: the Discovery expedition 4.10 The Gauss expedition 4.11 The Antarctica expedition 4.12 Scientific expeditions in the first quarter of the twentieth century 4.13 The coming-of-age of Antarctic science Endnotes 5 The modern period - logistics and materiel 5.1 The inter-related growth of science and technology 5.2 Development of organization: the polar institutes 5.3 The Byrd expeditions and the general introduction of technology 5.3.1 Ships 5.3.2 Electrical communication 5.3.3 Mechanized surface transport 5.3.4 Aircraft 5.3.5 Aerial photography 5.3.6 Laboratories 5.3.7 Techniques for living 5.4 Post-Second World War developments 5.5 Developments following the International Geophysical Year 5.6 Ships in the modern period 5.7 Building technology 5.8 The advent of satellites 5.9 The impact of equality of the sexes Endnotes 6 The modern period - the involvement with politics 6.1 The dependence of Antarctic science on public money 6.2 Regulating of whaling and Antarctic research 6.3 Nationalistic and imperialistic influences up to the Second World War 6.4 The Antarctic in the Second World War 6.5 The Falkland Islands Dependencies Survey 6.6 The assertion of American interest 6.7 The growing problems arising from territorial claims 6.8 The International Geophysical Year 6.9 The Antarctic Treaty 6.10 The Scientific Committee for Antarctic Research 6.11 National Antarctic research organizations and operations 6.12 Private expeditions 6.13 The politics of conservation 6.14 The problems of emergencies Endnotes 7 The sciences of the Antarctic seas 7.1 The scope of the chapter 7.2 Physical oceanography at the beginning of the twentieth century 7.3 Marine biology and biological oceanography in the early twentieth century 7.4 The inter-war period and the Discovery Investigations 7.5 The impact of the Second World War on oceanography 7.6 Marine biology in the immediate post-Second World War years 7.7 Physical oceanography in the modern period: the advent of remote sensing 7.8 Studies on sea-ice and icebergs 7.9 Biological oceanography: productivity and the pelagic ecosystem 7.10 BIOMASS 7.11 Inshore marine biology Endnotes 8 The earth sciences 8.1 The geological outlook at the beginning of the twentieth century 8.2 Geological reconnaissance 8.3 Geology during and after the IGY: the dry valleys 8.4 The continental drift theory and the tectonic structure of Antarctica 8.5 The ice-cap and the land underneath it 8.6 Glaciology 8.7 Climatic history and the records in ice-cores 8.8 Meteorites on the ice-sheet 8.9 Denudation processes 8.10 Soil 8.11 Physical limnology 8.12 The wider role of geologists in Antarctica Endnotes 9 The sciences of atmosphere and geospace 9.1 The atmospheric sciences at the end of the nineteenth century 9.2 Heroic age meteorology 2 9.3 Meteorology from 1920 until the IGY 9.4 Meteorology during IGY 9.5 Post-IGY meteorology 9.6 Atmospheric chemistry: ozone 9.7 Energy balance and modelling 9.8 The beginnings of study of the upper atmosphere 9.9 The concept of geospace 9.10 Ionospherics up to the IGY 9.11 Ionospherics during the IGY 9.12 Geospace research since the IGY 9.13 Cosmic ray studies and astronomy in the Antarctic Endnotes 10 Land-based biology 10.1 The natural history of the Antarctic 10.2 The development of Antarctic biology 10.3 The physiological ecology of plants 10.4 Invertebrate ecology and physiology 10.5 Microbiology 10.6 Limnology 10.7 Ornithology 10.8 Seal studies 10.9 Conclusions Endnotes 11 Man and the Antarctic environment 11.1 Heroic age medicine 11.2 Medical research before and during the IGY 11.3 Medical and psychological research after the IGY 11.4 The International Biomedical Expedition 11.5 Sledge dog physiology 11.6 Introduced organisms 11.7 Conservation Endnotes 12 Some concluding comments 12.1 The persistent features of Antarctic science 12.2 The contribution to science in general 12.3 Arctic and Antarctic 12.4 Internationalism 12.5 Antarctic science and politics 12.6 The effects ofbureaucracy on Antarctic science 12.7 Science and the humanist view of Antarctica Endnotes 13 Postscript Endnotes References Index

Note: Contents Editor's note Acknowledgements page xu Notes on translations and definitions Abstract Preface Introduction 1 Geocryology as part of planetary cryology 2 Frozen rocks as natural-historical geological formations 3 History of research of the zone of permafrost and the frozen materials composing this zone 4 Structure, problems and scientific themes of geocryology 5 Methodological basis of geocryology I Thermal-physical, physico-chemical and mechanical processes in freezing, frozen and thawing ground and their manifestation in the permafrost regions 1 Thermal-physical processes in freezing and thawing ground 1.1 Heat transfer and temperature field in ground 1.2 Freezing (crystallization) of water and melting of ice in the ground 1.3 Sublimation and desublimation of moisture in frozen rocks 1.4 Freezing and thawing of ground 1.5 Methods for solving soil freezing (thawing) problems and approximate formulae for freezing and thawing depth calculations 2 Water transfer and ice formation in soils 2.1 Nature and mechanism of moisture migration in soils 2.2 Water transfer and ice formation in frozen soil 2.3 Water transfer and ice formation in freezing and thawing soils 3 Physico-chemical and mechanical processes in freezing and thawing ground 3.1 Chemical reactions and processes in freezing and thawing soils 3.2 Physico-chemical and mechanical processes in freezing and thawing soils 3.3 Physical-mechanical processes in frozen soils caused by changes in temperature 3.4 Physical and chemical processes in frozen soils caused by an external load 4 Structure and texture of freezing and thawing soils 4.1 Thermal-physical and physical-mechanical conditions of development of migrational-segregated ice interlayers 4.2 Basic types of cryogenic structure 4.3 Formation of structure in freezing and thawing soils 4.4 Structural associations and types of contact in frozen soils 5 Cryogenic geological processes and phenomena 5.1 Classification of processes and phenomena 5.2 Frost heaving of soils 5.3 Frost cracking (fissuring) and polygonal formations, surface and underground 5.4 Thermokarst 5.5 Slope processes and phenomena 5.6 Processes and effects associated with the activity of water, glaciers and other geological agents II Composition, cryogenic structure and properties of frozen rocks 6 Formation of sedimentary materials in the permafrost regions (cryolithogenesis) 6.1 Sediment genesis in the permafrost regions 6.2 Transformation of loose deposits of the permafrost regions into rock 6.3 Formation of useful mineral deposits at different stages of cryogenesis 7 Composition and structure of frozen earth materials 7.1 Characteristics of organic, mineral and chemical composition of frozen earth materials 7.2 Unfrozen water and ice in ground 7.3 Textural characteristics of the frozen material 7.4 Microstructure of frozen soils 8 Properties of frozen soils 8.1 Physical properties of the frozen materials 8.2 Thermal-physical properties of rocks 8.3 Moisture exchange properties of soils 8.4 Mechanical properties of frozen ground 9 Characteristics of the basic genetic types of frozen ground 9.1 Features of the cryogenic types of frozen strata 9.2 Composition and cryogenic structure of the principal geologic-genetic types of sedimentary materials in the permafrost regions 9.3 Natural ice as a monomineral rock III Principles of the formation and development of the frozen strata and layers of seasonal freezing and thawing 10 Thermodynamic and climatic conditions for formation of the frozen layers 10.1 Energy balance of the Earth 10.2 Thermodynamic conditions for development of seasonally and perennially frozen ground 10.3 Frozen ground as a result of zonation of thermal- and mass-exchange processes on the Earth's surface and in the atmosphere 11 Seasonal freezing and thawing of ground 11.1 Formation of the layer of seasonal freezing and thawing of soil 11.2 Types of seasonal freezing and thawing of the ground 11.3 The influence oflandscape-climatic factors on the temperature regime and depth of seasonal freezing and thawing of the ground 12 Development of the temperature regime and the thickness of the permafrost 12.1 Present-day knowledge of the development of permafrost 12.2 The effect of boundary conditions on the permafrost thickness and temperature regime 12.3 Dependence of the permafrost thickness and temperature regime on geological factors and processes 13 Taliks and groundwater in the permafrost zone 13.1 The types and formation of taliks in the permafrost zone 13.2 Groundwater of the permafrost regions 13.3 Interaction of groundwater with the permafrost and types of cryohydrogeological structures IV Regional features and evolution of permafrost 14 Permafrost evolution in the Earth's history 14.1 History of the development of permafrost and its distribution on the planet 14.2 Reasons for the development and evolution of permafrost in the Earth's history 14.3 The history of geocryological development and the main stages of permafrost formation on the territory of the former USSR in the Late Cenozoic 15 Zonal and regional features of present-day geocryological conditions in the territories of the former USSR 15.1 Distribution of permafrost and spatial variations of its mean annual temperature 15.2 Structure of the permafrost and spatial variability of its thickness 15.3 Distribution of main types of seasonal ground thawing and freezing 16 Principles and methods for regional geocryological investigations 16.1 Geocryological survey as the basis for regional investigation of the seasonally and perennially freezing zones 16.2 The methods and carrying-out of geocryological surveys 16.3 Classification and regionalization in the course of geocryological survey 16.4 Regionalization in geocryological mapping V Rational use of frozen ground and environmental protection in the course of economic development of the permafrost regions 17 The effect of different types of development on the natural geocryological environment 17.1 The basic principles of rational use of frozen ground in the course of the economic development of the permafrost regions 17.2 Regional environmental change in the course of development of extensive areas within the permafrost zone 17.3 Economic development of the permafrost regions with various kinds of construction 17.4 Development in the permafrost regions for the mining industry and underground engineering 17.5 Types of agrobiological development in the permafrost regions 18 Ensuring the stability of engineering structures in the permafrost regions 18.1 Principles of construction on permafrost (bases and foundations) 18.2 Methods of amelioration of frozen ground for foundations 18.3 Principles of foundation design and selection of type of foundation for construction on permafrost 18.4 Normative documents for engineering design and construction in the permafrost regions 19 Engineering geology in support of design, construction and operation of structures in the permafrost regions 19.1 Engineering-geological survey in the permafrost regions 19.2 Forecasting change in the geocryological conditions in the course of development 19.3 Principles and methods of the control of cryogenic processes 19.4 The basis of the rational use and protection of the geological environment in the permafrost regions References Index

Note: Contents: Translator's foreword. - Preface to English edition. - Abstract. - Map showing major place names. - 1 Introduction. - 2 What is the tundra?. - 3 Temperature and humidity in the tundra. - 4 The diversity of tundra landscapes. - 5 Snow and its role in the life of the tundra. - 6 Adaptation of living organisms to conditions in the tundra zone. - 7 Distribution of animals and plants. - 8 Interrelationships between organisms. - 9 Man and the tundra. - Bibliography. - Index. , Aus dem Russ. übers.