ALBERT

Note: CONTENTS PREFACE PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS PART ONE GLACIERS 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Glacier systems 1.1.1 Mass balance 1.1.2 Meltwater 1.1.3 Glacier motion 1.1.4 Glaciers and sea-level change 1.1.5 Erosion and debris transport 1.1.6 Glacial sediments, landforms and landscapes 1.2 Glacier morphology 1.2.1 Ice sheets and ice caps 1.2.2 Glaciers constrained by topography 1.2.3 Ice shelves 1.3 Present distribution of glaciers 1.3.1 Influence of latitude and altitude 1.3.2 Influence of aspect, relief and distance from a moisture source 1.4 Past distribution of glaciers 1.4.1 'Icehouse' and 'greenhouse' worlds 1.4.2 Cenozoic glaciation 2 SNOW, ICE AND CLIMATE 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Surface energy balance 2.2.1 Changes of state and temperature 2.2.2 Shortwave radiation 2.2.3 Longwave radiation 2.2.4 Sensible and latent heat: turbulent fluxes 2.2.5 Energy supplied by rain 2.2.6 Why is glacier ice blue? 2.3 Ice temperature 2.3.1 The melting point of ice 2.3.2 Controls on ice temperature 2.3.3 Thermal structure of glaciers and ice sheets 2.4 Processes of accumulation and ablation 2.4.1 Snow and ice accumulation 2.4.2 Transformation of snow to ice 2.4.3 Melting of snow and ice 2.4.4 Sublimation and evaporation 2.4.5 The influence of debris cover 2.5 Mass balance 2.5.1 Definitions 2.5.2 Measurement of mass balance 2.5.3 Annual mass balance cycles 2.5.4 Mass balance gradients 2.5.5 The equilibrium line 2.5.6 Glaciation levels or glaciation thresholds 2.5.7 Glacier sensitivity to climate change 2.6 Glacier-climate interactions 2.6.1 Effects of glaciers and ice sheets on the atmosphere 2.7 Ice cores 2.7.1 Ice coring programmes 2.7.2 Stable isotopes 2.7.3 Ancient atmospheres: the gas content of glacier ice 2.7.4 Solutes and particulates 3 GLACIER HYDROLOGY 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Basic concepts 3.2.1 Water sources and routing 3.2.2 Hydraulic potential 3.2.3 Resistance to flow 3.2.4 Channel wall processes: melting, freezing and ice deformation 3.3 Supraglacial and englacial drainage 3.3.1 Supraglacial water storage and drainage 3.3.2 Englacial drainage 3.4 Subglacial drainage 3.4.1 Subglacial channels 3.4.2 Water films 3.4.3 Linked cavity systems 3.4.4 Groundwater flow 3.4.5 Water at the ice-sediment interface 3.5 Glacial hydrological systems 3.5.1 Temperate glaciers 3.5.2 Polythermal glaciers 3.5.3 Modelling glacial hydrological systems 3.6 Proglacial runoff 3.6.1 Seasonal and shorter-term cycles 3.6.2 Runoff and climate change 3.7 Glacial lakes and outburst floods 3.7.1 Introduction 3.7.2 Moraine-dammed lakes 3.7.3 Ice-dammed lakes 3.7.4 Icelandic subglacial lakes 3.7.5 Estimating GLOF magnitudes 3.8 Life in glaciers 3.8.1 Supraglacial ecosystems 3.8.2 Subglacial ecosystems 3.9 Glacier hydrochemistry 3.9.1 Overview 3.9.2 Snow chemistry 3.9.3 Chemical weathering processes 3.9.4 Subglacial chemical weathering 3.9.5 Proglacial environments 3.9.6 Rates of chemical erosion 4 PROCESSES OF GLACIER MOTION 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Stress and strain 4.2.1 Stress 4.2.2 Strain 4.2.3 Rheology: stress-strain relationships 4.2.4 Force balance in glaciers 4.3 Deformation of ice 4.3.1 Glen's Flow Law 4.3.2 Crystal fabric, impurities and water content 4.3.3 Ice creep velocities 4.4 Sliding 4.4.1 Frozen beds 4.4.2 Sliding of wet-based ice 4.4.3 Glacier-bed friction 4.4.4 The role of water 4.5 Deformable beds 4.5.1 The Boulton-Hindmarsh model 4.5.2 Laboratory testing of subglacial tills 4.5.3 Direct observations of deformable glacier beds 4.5.4 Rheology of subglacial till 4.6 Rates of basal motion 4.6.1 'Sliding laws' 4.6.2 Local and non-local controls on ice velocity 4.7 Crevasses and other structures: strain made visible 4.7.1 Crevasses 4.7.2 Crevasse patterns 4.7.3 Layering, foliation and related structures 5 GLACIER DYNAMICS 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Understanding glacier dynamics 5.2.1 Balance velocities 5.2.2 Deviations from the balance velocity 5.2.3 Changes in ice thickness: continuity 5.2.4 Thermodynamics 5.3 Glacier models 5.3.1 Overview 5.3.2 Equilibrium glacier profiles 5.3.3 Time-evolving glacier models 5.4 Dynamics of valley glaciers 5.4.1 Intra-annual velocity variations 5.4.2 Multi-annual variations 5.5 Calving glaciers 5.5.1 Flow of calving glaciers 5.5.2 Calving processes 5.5.3 'Calving laws' 5.5.4 Advance and retreat of calving glaciers 5.6 Ice shelves 5.6.1 Mass balance of k e shelves 5.6.2 Flow of ice shelves 5.6.3 Ice shelf break-up 5.7 Glacier surges 5.7.1 Overview 5.7.2 Distribution of surging glaciers 5.7.3 Temperate glacier surges 5.7.4 Polythermal surging glaciers 5.7.5 Surge mechanisms 6 THE GREENLAND AND ANTARCTIC ICE SHEETS 6.1 Introduction 6.2 The Greenland Ice Sheet 6.2.1 Overview 6.2.2 Climate and surface mass balance 6.2.3 Ice sheet flow 6.2.4 Ice streams and outlet glaciers 6.3 The Antarctic Ice Sheet 6.3.1 Overview 6.3.2 Climate and mass balance 6.3.3 Flow of inland ice 6.3.4 Ice streams 6.3.5 Hydrology and subglacial lakes 6.3.6 Ice stream stagnation and reactivation 6.3.7 Stability of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet 7 GLACIERS AND SEA LEVEL CHANGE 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Causes of sea-level change 7.2.1 Overview 7.2.2 Glacio-eustasy and global ice volume 7.2.3 Glacio-isostasy and ice sheet loading 7.3 Sea-level change over glacial-interglacial cycles 7.3.1 Ice sheet fluctuations and eustatic sea-level change 7.3.2 Sea-level histories in glaciated regions 7.4 Glaciers and recent sea-level change 7.4.1 Recorded sea-level change 7.4.2 Global glacier mass balance 7.5 Future sea-level change 7.5.1 IPCC climate and sea-level projections 7.5.2 Predicting the glacial contribution to sea-level change PART TWO GLACIATION 8 EROSIONAL PROCESSES, FORMS AND LANDSCAPES 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Subglacial erosion 8.2.1 Rock fracture: general principles 8.2.2 Abrasion 8.2,3 Quarrying 8.2.4 Erosion beneath cold ice 8.2.5 Erosion of soft beds 8.3 Small-scale erosional forms 8.3.1 Striae and polished surfaces 8.3.2 Rat tails 8.3.3 Chattermarks, gouges and fractures 8.3.4 P-forms 8.4 Intermediate-scale erosional forms 8.4.1 Roches moutonnees 8.4.2 Whalebacks and rock drumlins 8.4.3 Crag and tails 8.4.4 Channels 8.5 Large-scale erosional landforms 8.5.1 Rock basins and overdeepenings 8.5.2 Basins and overdeepenings in soft sediments 8.5.3 Troughs and fjords 8.5.4 Cirques 8.5.5 Strandflats 8.6 Landscapes of glacial erosion 8.6.1 Areal scouring 8.6.2 Selective linear erosion 8.6.3 Landscapes of little or no glacial erosion 8.6.4 Alpine landscapes 8.6.5 Cirque landscapes 8.6.6 Continent-scale patterns of erosion 9 DEBRIS ENTRAPMENT AND TRANSPORT 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Approaches to the study of glacial sediments 9.2.1 The glacial debris cascade 9.2.2 Spatial hierarchies of sediments and landforms 9.3 Glacial debris entrainment 9.3.1 Supraglacial debris entrainment 9.3.2 Incorporation of debris into basal ice 9.4 Debris transport and release 9.4.1 Subglacial transport 9.4.2 High-level debris transport 9.4.3 Glacifluvial transport 9.5 Effects of transport on debris 9.5.1 Granulometry 9.5.2 Clast morphology 9.5.3 Particle micromorphology 10 GLACIGENIC SEDIMENTS AND DEPOSITIONAL PROCESSES 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Sediment description and classification 10.2.1 Sediment description 10.2.2 Deformation structures 10.2.3 Primary and secondary deposits 10.3 Primary glacigenic deposits (till) 10.3.1 Overview 10.3.2 Processes of subglacial till formation 10.3.3 Glacitectonite 10.3.4 Subglacial traction till 10.4 Glacifluvial deposits 10.4.1 Terminology and classification of glacifluvial sediments 10.4.2 Plane bed deposits 10.4.3 Ripple cross-laminated facies 10.4.4 Dunes 10.4.5 Antidunes 10.4.6 Scour and minor channel fills 10.4.7 Gravel sheets 10.4.8 Silt and mud drapes 10.4.9 Hyperconcentrated flow deposits 10.5 Gravitational mass movement deposits and syn-sedimentary deformation structures 10.5.1 Overview 10.5.2 Fall deposits 10.5.3 Slide and slump deposits 10.5.4 Debris (sediment-gravity) flow deposits 10.5.5