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  • 1
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Influence of intrapatch experiences and temperature on the time allocation of the whitefly parasitoidEncarsia formosa (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae) (1994)
    Springer
    Journal of insect behavior 7 (1994), S. 483-501 
    Details
    ISSN: 1572-8889
    Keywords: parasitoids ; patch time allocation ; giving up time ; residence time ; proportional hazards ; Encarsia formosa ; Trialeurodes vaporariorum
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Abstract The effect of experiences, such as contact with honeydew, rejections of hosts, and ovipositions in hosts, and of temperature on the time allocation of individualEncarsia formosa female parasitoids on tomato leaflets have been studied. Behavioral records were analyzed by means of the proportional hazards model. Analyses were carried out at two levels: (1) the tendency of leaving and (2) the tendency of changing from one leaf side to another. The patch-leaving behavior ofE. formosa can be described by a stochastic threshold mechanism, which is characterized by a certain tendency (probability per time) to leave. The median time from being placed on the leaflet or, if it occurred, from the latest encounter with a host until leaving was 18.6 min. The median time for changing from one leaf side to the other was initially 11.6 min and dropped to 5.7 min after both leaf sides had been visited. The effect of temperature, ranging from 20 to 30°C, was negligible. The presence of honeydew as well as the first oviposition in an unparasitized host decreased the tendency to leave, thus increasing the giving up time (GUT) since the latest encounter with a host. Encounters with parasitized hosts did not affect the GUT since latest encounter; as a result, the total residence time increased. After the first oviposition in an unparasitized host the tendency of changing from the lower leaf side on which hosts were present to the upper side was decreased. The presence of honeydew did not affect the tendency of changing leaf sides.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF02025445
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  • 2
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    A variable-response model for parasitoid foraging behavior (1990)
    Springer
    Journal of insect behavior 3 (1990), S. 471-490 
    Details
    ISSN: 1572-8889
    Keywords: parasitoids ; foraging behavior ; learning ; experience ; variability ; model ; biological control
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Abstract An important factor inducing variability in foraging behavior in parasitic wasps is experience gained by the insect. Together with the insect's genetic constitution and physiological state, experience ultimately defines the behavioral repertoire under specified environmental circumstances. We present a conceptual variable-response model based on several major observations of a foraging parasitoid's responses to stimuli involved in the hostfinding process. These major observations are that (1) different stimuli evoke different responses or levels of response, (2) strong responses are less variable than weak ones, (3) learning can change response levels, (4) learning increases originally low responses more than originally high responses, and (5) hostderived stimuli serve as rewards in associative learning of other stimuli. The model specifies how the intrinsic variability of a response will depend on the magnitude of the response and predicts when and how learning will modify the insect's behavior. Additional hypotheses related to the model concern how experience with a stimulus modifies behavioral responses to other stimuli, how animals respond in multistimulus situations, which stimuli act to reinforce behavioral responses to other stimuli in the learning process, and finally, how generalist and specialist species differ in their behavioral plasticity. We postulate that insight into behavioral variability in the foraging behavior of natural enemies may be a help, if not a prerequisite, for the efficient application of parasitoids in pest management.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01052012
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  • 3
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Time allocation of the parasitoidAphidius colemani (Hymenoptera: Aphidiidae) foraging forAphis gossypii (Homoptera: Aphidae) on cucumber leaves (1996)
    Springer
    Journal of insect behavior 9 (1996), S. 283-295 
    Details
    ISSN: 1572-8889
    Keywords: foraging behavior ; parasitoids ; patch time allocation ; proportional hazards model
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Abstract The time allocation of individualAphidius colemani female parasitoids foraging forAphis gossypii nymphs on cucumber leaves has been investigated. Apart from experiences on the current leaf (such as density of hosts on the current leaf, density of hosts on a neighboring leaf and encounters with hosts on the current leaf), the effect of previous leaf visits on the time allocation was studied. Behavioral records were analyzed by means of the proportional hazards model, to determine the tendency of leaving the current leaf. The leaving tendency decreased only on leaves with a high host density (100 aphids), thus increasing the giving up time since the latest encounter. Rejection of aphids had no influence on the leaving tendency. To assess the effect of the number of hosts encountered on the leaving tendency, we considered three classes: 0–30 encounters, 31–100 encounters, and 100 or more encounters with hosts. The effect of the number of hosts encountered differed at different aphid densities. When fewer than 10 aphids were present the leaving tendency was much greater after 30 encounters than beforehand. At a density of 100 aphids the leaving tendency was lower than at the other aphid densities and increased only after 100 encounters. The density of hosts on a neighboring leaf, ranging from 0 to 100 hosts, had a negligible effect on the leaving tendency. Repeated visits to leaves with 10 unparasitized aphids resulted in an increase in the leaving tendency after 10 visits. It is argued that the parasitoids have some innate expectancy of host availability and that they concentrate on high-density patches.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF02213871
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