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  • 1
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Springer
    Entomologia experimentalis et applicata 80 (1996), S. 325-333 
    ISSN: 1570-7458
    Keywords: oviposition ; biological control ; predators ; mass rearing ; choice tests ; anthocorids
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Abstract A variety of natural and artificial substrates were tested for their suitability as oviposition sites for the predatory anthocorid bug Orius insidiosus. The bugs oviposited into models of beans constructed from Parafilm, but none of the eggs laid into these models hatched. In choice tests, beans stems were preferred to both bean pods and potato sprouts. Hatching rates at 100% r.h. were highest (59%) for bean pods and significantly lower for both potato sprouts (39%) and bean stems (29%). At 60% r.h., hatching rates for bean pods (39%), bean stems (34%) and potato sprouts (33%) were similar. At 30% r.h. hatching rates for all three substrates were less than 15%. The results suggest that bean stems can be used successfully as an alternative to bean pods for the mass rearing of these biological control agents.
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  • 2
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Springer
    Journal of insect behavior 2 (1989), S. 143-171 
    ISSN: 1572-8889
    Keywords: host examination ; host recognition ; locomotion ; parasitoid ; Trichogramma minutum ; oviposition
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Abstract The host examination behavior of the parasitoid wasp Trichogramma minutumon spherical Manduca sextahosts is described. The mean walking speed during host examination was 0.64 ± 0.03 mm s −1 and is independent of wasp size. The paths taken by the wasps are not evenly distributed over the host surface; the majority of time is spent below 45 ° latitude. The distribution of oviposition sites is also nonrandom with respect to latitude and is not influenced by phototaxic and geotaxic responses. The initial transit made by the wasps over the host surface is a straight path which frequently passes across the highest point on the host. The length and duration of the initial transit are independent of wasp body length. However, stride length and stepping rates are proportional to wasp body length, and small wasps take more steps to complete their initial transit. The roles of the examination walk in host recognition and host volume measurement by Trichogrammaare also discussed.
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  • 3
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Springer
    Entomologia experimentalis et applicata 39 (1985), S. 213-221 
    ISSN: 1570-7458
    Keywords: Trichogramma minutum ; oviposition ; measurement ; progeny allocation ; parasitoid ; host volume ; lepidopterous eggs
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Biology
    Description / Table of Contents: Zusammenfassung Bei dem Insekten-Eiparasiten Trichogramma minutum (Hymenoptera: Trichogrammatidae) hängt die Anzahl der abgelegten Eier vom Volumen der Wirtseier ab. Es wurden Untersuchungen zur Bestimmung der sensorischen Grundlagen dieses Verhaltens unternommen. Die Wespe weist sowohl im Tageslicht, als auch in totaler Dunkelheit jenen Manduca sexta (L.) (Lepidoptera: Sphingidae) Eiwirten (Diameter c. 1.3 mm) weniger eigene Eier zu, die teils (30%) in Substrat eingebettet sind, als solchen, die ganz herausragen. Da die Wirte einen identischen Radius und gleichen Oberflächengeruch haben, kann der Mechanismus der Volumenbestimmung weder chemisch noch optisch sein, sondern ist dem Wesen nach mechanosensorisch, und von der zugänglichen Oberfläche abhängig. Vor de Eiablage untersucht die Wespe die Wirtsoberfläche, indem sie darüber läuft, an den Ecken umkehrt und mit ihren Antennen ‘trommelt’. In Experimenten mit Glaskugelmodellen war die Anzahl der von der Wespe gemachten Wendungen an den Ecken (Nt) umgekehrt proportional zur Oberfläche, aber unabhängig vom Radius. Im Gegensatz dazu, war die Untersuchungszeit (Te) direkt proportional zum Radius, aber unabhängig von der Oberfläche. Ein Mechanismus für die Volumenmessung wird vorgeschlagen. Gleich beim Besteigen des potentialen Wirtes wird die relative Kurve (und infolgedessen der Radius), wahrscheinlich durch den Antennenwinkel gemessen. Wenn diese Messung innerhalb einer bestimmten Spanne liegt, beginnt die Wespe ihren Trommelgang. Die Messung wird auch dazu benutzt, ein maximales Volumen (und folglich die Anzahl der Nachkommen) des Wirtes und eine maximale Untersuchungzeit (Te) zu erzielen. Wird Te konstantgehalten, hängt die Anzahl der Wendungen (Nt) von der zugänglichen Oberfläche ab, wobei die Wespe öfter bei kleineren Oberflächen wendet. Die Anzahl der Wendungen gestattet der Wespe, die ursprüngliche Einschätzung des Wirtsvolumens so zu verändern, daß eine angemessene Anzahl von Eiern in nicht kugelige Wirte gelegt wird. Die Anwendung von kurven-und oberflächenabhängigen Messungen ermöglicht eine optimale Zuweisung von Nachkommen für eine Anzahl von unterschiedlichen Wirtsgrössen und-formen. Die Oberflächenmessung gestattet eine bessere Volumenbestimmung von nicht-kugeligen Objekten. Die gezeigte Abhängigkeit von der Oberfläche ist wahrscheinlich auch eine Anpassung an Wirte, die ihre Eier in Gruppen ablegen. Unter solchen Bedingungen von grosser Wirtsdichte ist es günstiger für die Wespe, weniger Eier in jeden Wirt der Gruppe zu legen, weil diese Verteilung zu grösseren, fruchtbareren Nachkommen führt.
    Notes: Abstract The number of eggs laid into its insect-egg host by Trichogramma minutum Riley (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea: Trichogrammatidae) depends on the volume of its lepidopterous host. The wasps allocated fewer progeny into Manduca sexta (L.) (Sphingidae) egg hosts partially embedded in the substrate than into fully exposed hosts, both in daylight and in total darkness. Since the hosts are of identical diameter and surface chemistry, the mechanism of volume determination is neither chemical nor visual, but essentially mechanosensory, based on accessible surface area. Before oviposition, the wasp examines the host surface by walking over it, turning at the edge, and ‘drumming’ with its antennae. The number of edge turns (Nt) made by wasps when they examined glass beads presented as model hosts was inversely dependent on surface area, but independent of diameter. Conversely, the examination time (Te) was directly dependent on diameter, but independent of surface area. A mechanism is proposed for host volume measurement. While the wasp examines a potential host, the relative curvature (and hence diameter) is measured, possibly by antennal angle. If this measure is within an acceptable range, the wasp initiates its drumming walk. The measure is also used to set Tc and to establish an estimate of a maximum possible volume (and hence progeny number) to the host object. With Tc fixed, the value for Nt depends on accessible surface area, the wasp turning more often on restricted surfaces. Nt allows the wasp to correct the estimate of host volume such that an appropriate number of eggs is laid in non-spherical hosts. The use of curvature to set Te increases the accuracy of the wasp's measure of Nt, while also improving its coverage of the surface. The use of curvature and surface area allows Trichogramma to optimize its progeny allocation for a variety of host sizes and shapes.
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  • 4
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Springer
    Entomologia experimentalis et applicata 59 (1991), S. 29-41 
    ISSN: 1570-7458
    Keywords: Trichogramma ; amino acids ; host eggs ; nutrition ; oviposition ; free amino acids
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Abstract Amino acid compositions of the eggs of five lepidopteran hosts for Trichogramma minutum were compared with each other and with a non-host species, Rhodnius prolixus, in which T. minutum oviposits but does not develop. Host eggs are quite homogeneous, particularly when compared according to groupings of potentially interconvertible amino acids. Combined mole percent values for glycine, serine and alanine were higher in hosts (27.5–29.2 mole%) than in R. prolixus eggs (21.5 mole%), in bovine serum albumin (14.9%), which has been used as a protein source in artificial diets for T. minutum, or in many of the mixtures used in published diets for this species. Since these three amino acids make up 26.3 mole% of the adult amino acid content of T. minutum, their deficiency in diets could require metabolic compensation detrimental to development. Adult T. minutum arising from eggs of Manduca sexta, Choristoneura fumiferana, and Sitotroga cerealella are similar in amino acid composition to each other and, in general, to their hosts. Variability appears greater in hosts than in adult wasp composition, suggesting some interconversion of host amino acids to accommodate inflexible nutritional requirements of T. minutum. In the three host species tested, free amino acids constituted 15.8–19.3% by weight of the amino acid in egg contents. In M. sexta eggs, glycine, serine and alanine together make up 28.4% by weight of the total free amino acid, a much higher proportion than in many published diets. The four free amino acids (isoleucine, leucine, phenylalanine and histidine) reported to be oviposition stimulants in experiments on encapsulated diets are present in sufficient concentrations to induce oviposition in the host species tested and in R. prolixus. S. cerealella egg contents having approximately 1.8 μg amino acid, yield one or rarely two adult T. minutum (1μg amino acid/insect). In contrast, M. sexta eggs with 94 μg amino acid each yield an average of 10–12 adults (8.2μg amino acid/insect). This suggests that small hosts are allocated few eggs which can only develop into small adults because of nutrient supply (parasitoid size in metabolically restricted), whereas much larger hosts are allocated proportionately fewer eggs than the former resulting in larger, and presumably more viable and fecund, adults (parasitoid size is established behaviourally).
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  • 5
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Springer
    Entomologia experimentalis et applicata 39 (1985), S. 287-294 
    ISSN: 1570-7458
    Keywords: Trichogramma minutum ; oviposition ; measurement ; progeny allocation ; host clusters ; host density ; parasitism
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Biology
    Description / Table of Contents: Zusammenfassung Optimale Strategien zur Nützung einer Reserve erfordern die Fähigkeit, die verfügbare Menge zu messen. Um die Nachkommen angemessen zu verteilen, muss die parasitische Wespe Trichogramma minutum Riley (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea: Trichogrammatidae) sowohl zur Größe, als auch zur Anzahl von Insekten Wirtseiern reagieren können. Die Wespen legten ihre Eier in verschiedene Gruppierungen von Wirtseiern. Es wurde gezeigt, dass die Anzahl der zugewiesenen Nachkommen von der Menge angrenzender Nachbarn und deren räumlicher Verteilung abhängt. Insbesondere werden Wirten mit mehreren Nachbarn, und demzufolge kleinerer freier Oberfläche, weniger Nachkommen zugewiesen. Auf Grund dieser Beobachtung wird die freie Oberfläche als Schlüssel für die Bestimmung der Menge von vorhandenen Wirten vorgeschlagen. Ein einfaches Modell zur Erklärung des vorher beschriebenen Zählverhaltens wird beschrieben. Es wurden Experimente mit Glaskugeln gemacht, die in unterschiedlichen Gruppen angeordnet waren. Es wurde gezeigt, dass einige Parameter des Weges bei der Wirtsuntersuchung (u.a. Häufigkeit und Anzahl der Richtungsänderungen) direkt von der Anzahl der Nachbarn abhängen. Änderungen in diesen Parametern könnten der Reaktion auf die Anzahl angrenzenden Nachbarn zugrunde liegen. Die Bedeutung des Einflusses von Wirtsgruppierung auf die Zucht und die Anwendung der Trichogramma bei der Schädlingsbekämpfung wird kurz diskutiert.
    Notes: Abstract Optimal strategies for utilizing a resource require the ability to assess the quantity available. To allocate its progeny appropriately, the parasitic wasp Trichogramma minutum Riley (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea: Trichogrammatidae) must respond not only to the size but also to the number of its insect egg hosts which are locally available. By allowing the wasps to oviposit into different clustered arrangements of hosts, it is shown that progeny allocation per host depends on the host number and position of contacting neighbours. In particular, hosts with more neighbours, and thus reduced exposed surface area, are allocated fewer progeny. It is argued that exposed surface area may be the cue used by the wasp to adjust its progeny allocation to the number of local hosts. This discrimination occurs in the absence of superparasitism. A simple model is described which accounts for previously reported counting responses. Observation of examination paths on glass bead models arranged in clusters showed that the frequency and number of edge turns change significantly with the number of neighbours. Changes in these parameters could be used to mediate the wasp's response to the number of local neighbours. The significance of host clustering effects in the use and rearing of Trichogramma for biological control is discussed briefly.
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  • 6
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Springer
    Entomologia experimentalis et applicata 43 (1987), S. 125-131 
    ISSN: 1570-7458
    Keywords: Trichogramma minutum ; oviposition ; parasitism ; host density ; progeny allocation ; fecundity
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Biology
    Description / Table of Contents: Zusammenfassung Bei der parasitischen Wespe Trichogramma minutum hängt die Menge abgelegter Eier teilweise von der räumlichen Verteilung seines Insektenwirtes ab. In dieser Arbeit wird der Einfluss von unterschiedlichen Abständen zwischen den Wirtstieren auf die Anzahl von Nachkommen pro Ei beschrieben und mögliche Mechanismen zur Bestimmung der Wirtsdichte vorgeschlagen. Die Anzahl von Nachkommen pro Wirtsei verringert sich mit kleiner werdendem Abstand zwischen den Wirtseiern. Es wird vermutet dass die Wespen ein Mass für die Häufigkeit von Wirtsbegegnungen, z.B. Zeit oder Abstand zwischen Wirten als Schlüssel für die Bestimmung der Menge von Nachkommen benutzen. Diese Erscheinung kann nicht auf Superparasitismus von weiter entfernten Wirten zurückgeführt werden. Einzelne Wirte, die nur einmal von den Wespen parasitiert werden durften, erhielten die gleiche Anzahl von Eiern, wie die am weitesten verteilten Wirte. Darüber hinaus wurde kein Zusammenhang zwischen der Anzahl parasitierter Wirte und der durchschnittlichen Grösse der Nachkommenschaft pro Wespe gefunden. Das weist darauf hin, dass die Wespen nicht einfach mit jeder weiteren Wirtsbegegnung ihre Menge zugewiesener Nachkommen verringern. Schliesslich wird der Einfluss von unterschiedlicher Anzahl von Nachkommen auf die Wirtsmortalität diskutiert.
    Notes: Abstract The clutch size of the parasitoid wasp Trichogramma minutum Riley (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea) is in part adjusted in response to the spatial distribution of its insect egg hosts. This paper describes the effects on progeny allocation of differences in the distance separating single hosts, and a possible mechanism is proposed. The number of progeny laid into a single host decreases with reduced interhost distance. The effect is not due to superparasitism of more widely spaced hosts, since single hosts which the wasps are allowed to parasitize only once receive only as many eggs as the most widely spaced host. Furthermore, no correlation was found between the number of hosts parasitized and the mean clutch size for each wasp, indicating that the wasps do not simply reduce progeny allocation with successive host encouters. Instead, the wasps may use a measure of the frequency of host encouter, for example the time or distance between hosts, as a cue to set cluch size. Comparisons of clutch size for first and second hosts parasitized showed that there is an initial large reduction in clutch size, after which all subsequent hosts parasitized are allocated a constant, reduced number of progeny. The implications of changes in clutch size for the parasitization rate of the wasps are discussed.
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