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  • 1
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    New York, NY [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Journal of Applied Polymer Science 5 (1961), S. 149-152 
    ISSN: 0021-8995
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Polymer and Materials Science
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics , Physics
    Notes: The dependence of grafting on the type of initiator has been examined in the case of three polymer-monomer systems: polystyrene-methyl methacrylate, polymethyl methacrylate-vinyl acetate, and polyethyl α-chloroacrylate-vinyl acetate. The different initiators used in these experiments were benzoyl peroxide (Bz2O2), azobisisobutyronitrile (AIBN), di-tert-butyl peroxide (DTBP), and tert-butyl hydroperoxide (TBHP). In each case the graft copolymers were separated from the homopolymers by fractional precipitation or by extraction. In the case of the system polystyrene-methyl methacrylate, an appreciable degree of grafting as well as formation of graft copolymer occur in the presence of Bz2O2; in contrast, the grafting is low with DTBP and doubtful with AIBN. For the other two systems no noticeable differences occurred as function of the initiator. In the case of polyethyl α-chloroacrylate the amount of graft copolymer is exceptionally high owing to the sensitivity of this polymer to a radical attack; this sensitivity results in the partial insolubility of the graft copolymers in the presence of TBHP and DTBP, but not in the presence of AIBN.
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  • 2
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Weinheim : Wiley-Blackwell
    Angewandte Makromolekulare Chemie 22 (1972), S. 87-105 
    ISSN: 0003-3146
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Polymer and Materials Science
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Physics
    Description / Table of Contents: In den letzten 10 Jahren sind auf dem Gebiet der Polymer-Chemie einige neue Polymerisationsmethoden entwickelt worden, z. B. die Isomerisierungs-Polymerisation von aliphatischen Kohlenwasserstoffen, die oxidative katalytische Polymerisation von Aromaten, die photochemische Polyaddition, die 1,3- und 1,4-dipolaren Polycycloadditionen und die Zwei-Stufen-Polykondensationen.Einige dieser Methoden sind schon industriell angewandt worden. Gleichzeitig wurden neue katalytische Prozesse entdeckt, die eine stereoregulierte Copolymerisation erlauben und seit kurzem sogar stereoselektiv verlaufen.Die Isomerisierungs-Polymerisation, bei der das Kettenwachstum durch alternierende Additions-Isomerisierungs-Schritte charakterisiert ist, wird an einigen Beispielen aufgezeigt. Diese Methode wird verglichen mit Polymerisationen, der eine Isomerisierung am Monomeren vorausgeht, wie es z. B. der Fall mit β-Olefinenist.Die stufenweise oxidative Kupplung von verschiedenen 2,6-disubstituierten Phenolen mit Sauerstoff in Gegenwart von Aminkomplexen von Kupfersalzen wird aus kinetischer und struktureller Sicht betrachtet. Es wird ein Vergleich mit der oxidativen FRIEDEL-CRAFTS-Reaktion an aromatischen Kohlenwasserstoffen angestellt.Zwei Typen von photochemischen Polyadditionsreaktionen, die auf einer Cyclopolymerisation beruhen, werden betrachtet. Cyclobutan-Ringe werden einmal durch Dimerisation von Olefinen gebildet (in Lösung und im festen Zustand) und zum anderen durch reduktive Dimerisation, wie z. B. von Bis-arylketonen zu Polypinakolen.Die Anwendung der 1,3-dipolaren Cycloaddition zur Synthese von heterocyclischen Ringen in Polymeren sowie einige Eigenschaften dieser Polymeren werden beschrieben. So wie die 1,4-DIELS-ALDER-Cycloaddition beispielhaft für die Synthese von Polyphenylen ist, wird dies bei Cyclopentadienonen oder/und Bis-phenyl-bis-pyronen und Diäthinylbenzol beschrieben.Kurz erwähnt wird die Synthese von thermisch stabilen Polymeren durch Polyheterocyclisierung, z. B. einfache Ketten- Benzoxazol- und Benzthiazol-imid-Co-polymere und Kapton-Fasern, ebenso doppelkettige Leiter-Polypyrrolon-Anthrachinon-Fasern.Schließlich wird kurz uber neue katalytische Prozesse sowie deren Möglichkeit zur Anwendung zu Synthesen von neuen Polymeren und regelmäßigen Copolymeren berichtet. Einige Eigenschaften dieser neuen Polymeren werden beschrieben.
    Notes: The development of the polymer chemistry during the last decade is characterized by the existence of several new methods of polymerization, e. g. the isomerization polymerization of aliphatic hydrocarbons, the oxidative catalytic polymerization of aromatics, the photochemical polyaddition, the 1.3 and 1.4 dipolar polycycloadditions, the two step polycondensation processes. Some of these methods have already been applied on an industrial scale. Simultaneously new catalytic procedures were discovered, some of which permit stereoregular copolymerization, and very recently stereo-elective polymerization. These different aspects will be considered successively.The isomerization polymerization in which the chain growth is characterized by alternate addition isomerization steps, is illustrated by several examples, and compared to the polymerizations with previous monomer isomerization, as in the case of β-olefins.The stepwise oxidative coupling of different 2.6 disubstituted phenols, with oxygen in the presence of amine complexes of copper salts is considered from kinetic and structural point of view and compared with the oxidative FRIEDEL-CRAFTS reaction on aromatic hydrocarbons.Two types of photochemical polyadditions are considered on the basis of the cyclomerization reaction, in which cyclobutane rings are formed by dimerization of olefins (in solution and in the solid state), and of the reductive dimerization, e. g. of bisarylketones into polypinacols.The use of 1.3 dipolar cycloaddition for the synthesis of heterocyclic rings containing polymers is illustrated and some properties of these polymers are described. Similarly the 1.4 DIELS-ALDER cycloaddition is exemplified by the synthesis of polyphenylenes as described from biscyclopentadienones or (and) bis-phenylenebispyrones and diethinylbenzene.Only short mention will be made on the synthesis of thermally stable polymers by polyheterocyclization, e. g. single strand benzoxazole- and benzthiazole-imide copolymers and Kapton fibre, and double strand ladder polypyrrolone-anthrachinone fibres. New catalytic procedures are finally briefly commented as far as they offer possibilities for the synthesis of new polymers and regular copolymers. Some properties of these new polymers are reported.
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  • 3
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Hoboken, NJ : Wiley-Blackwell
    Journal of Polymer Science 2 (1947), S. 612-622 
    ISSN: 0022-3832
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Polymer and Materials Science
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Physics
    Notes: Intrinsic viscosity, calculated in accordance with the empirical relation established by Schulz and Huggins, deviates considerably from its true value in the case of increasing viscosities. The introduction of a simple corrective, second degree term η2sp/150, applicable to most of the polymers, permits the direct computation of intrinsic viscosity based upon polymer solutions of various concentrations. Specific viscosities may vary to a great extent and reach a value as high as 15; the use of high concentrations permits the reduction of experimental errors and the determination, to within an average of one per cent, of the intrinsic viscosity of the polymer sample, and thus of its molecular weight.
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  • 4
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Hoboken, NJ : Wiley-Blackwell
    Journal of Polymer Science 5 (1950), S. 55-67 
    ISSN: 0022-3832
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Polymer and Materials Science
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Physics
    Notes: En présence de peroxyde de benzoyle, l'acétate d'isopropényle polymérise de la même facon que l'acétate d'allyle. Son comportement lors de la copolymérisation avec l'acétate de vinyle, le chlorure de vinyle et le méthacrylate de méthyle montre que ce monomère possède une réactivité générale semblable à celle de l'acétate de vinyle. Le caractère négatif de la double soudure est plus prononcé (-0.8). Ces copolymérisations sont caractérisées par un important transfert de chaîne, dû à la présence de l'acétate d'isopropényle. A l'égard du styrène, l'acétate d'isopropényle se comporte comme un solvant; il n'y a ni copolymérisation, ni transfert de chaîne.
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  • 5
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Hoboken, NJ : Wiley-Blackwell
    Journal of Polymer Science 8 (1952), S. 289-311 
    ISSN: 0022-3832
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Polymer and Materials Science
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Physics
    Description / Table of Contents: Graft vinyl copolymers have been prepared by chain transfer reaction between monomer radical and polymer molecule, followed by addition of monomer to the “macroradical.” For this purpose vinyl monomers have been polymerized in the presence of appreciable amounts (25% or more) of foreign polymer, with benzoyl peroxide as catalyst (0.5% on monomer). The separation of the graft copolymers from the other homopolymers present in the mixture is based on differences in the solubility of these products. Experiments are carried out with vinyl acetate with polymethyl methacrylate at different temperatures, 75°, 85°, and 95°C.; the graft percentage depends considerably on t°, and the following values, respectively, 15, 32, and 53% for vinyl acetate are obtained from chemical and infrared analysis. These graft copolymers were identified by their solubility properties and their osmotic and viscometric behavior, values of k′ (Huggins' constant) and μ varying greatly for a mixture of both polymers (a true copolymer and a graft copolymer) where the molecular weight and the per cent of vinyl acetate are the same. In the same way, it is possible to obtain a graft copolymer by polymerization of vinyl chloride in the presence of polymethyl methacrylate. It has not been found possible to carry out the inverse reactions, namely, the polymerization of methylmethacrylate onto polyvinyl acetate or polyvinyl chloride, owing to fractionation of the polymers. Similar experiments were carried out at different temperatures with styrene on polymethyl methacrylate and with methyl methacrylate on polystyrene. In both cases the reactions are successful, and are characterized by a strong increase in solubility of the polystyrene fraction. In the first case, the amount of solubilized polystyrene increases with increasing temperature. These graft copolymerizations are related to degradation measurements described elsewhere and to the stability of the radicals formed.
    Notes: Des copolymères greffés ont été préparés par réaction de transfert de chaǐne entre un radical monomérique et une molécule de polymère suivie de l'addition de monomère au macroradical. Dans ce but, les monomères vinyliques ont été polymérisés en présence de quantités appréciables (25% et plus) de polymère étranger, en présence de peroxyde de benzoyle comme initiateur (0.5% par rapport au monomère). La séparation des copolymères greffés des autres homopolymères présents dans le mélange est basée sur les différences de solubilité de ces produits. Les expériences ont été menées au départ d'acétate de vinyle en présence de polyméthacrylate de méthyle à différentes températures, savoir 75°, 85° et 95°C.; le taux de greffage dépend fortement de la t°, et atteint respectivement 15, 32 et 53% d'acétate de vinyle (analyses chimiques et infra-rouges) Ces copolymères greffés ont été identifiés par leurs propriétés de solubilité et leur comportémént osmotique et viscosimétrique; les valeurs de k′ (constante de Huggins) et μ varient considérablement si on compare un mélange de polymères, un copolymère habituel et un copolymère greffé, dont les poids moléculaires et le taux d'acétate de vinyle sont semblables. De la měme façon, il a été possible d'obtenir un copolymère greffé par polymérisation du chlorure de vinyle en présence de polyméthacrylate de méthyle. Les réactions inverses toutefois, savoir la polymérisation du méthacrylate de méthyle en greffage sur les acétate ou chlorure de polyvinyle, n'ont pu ětre mises en évidence par des opérations de fractionnement. Des expériences semblables ont été effectuées à différentes températures avec le styrène en présence de polyméthacrylate de méthyle, et inversément le méthacrylate de méthyle en présence de polystyrène. Dans les deux cas les réactions réussissent et se manifestent par une solubilisation de la fraction polystyrénique. Dans le premier cas, la quantité de polystyrène solubilisé croǐt avec une augmentation de température. Ces copolymérisations par greffage sont reliées aux phénomènes de dégradation, décrites ailleurs, et à la stabilité des radicaux formés au cours des réactions.
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  • 6
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Hoboken, NJ : Wiley-Blackwell
    Journal of Polymer Science 8 (1952), S. 371-394 
    ISSN: 0022-3832
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Polymer and Materials Science
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Physics
    Description / Table of Contents: Die Kondensationsreaktion von Harnstoff und Formaldehyd wurde für ein Molarverhältnis 1:1 und 1:2 beider Komponenten untersucht; die Reaktion verläft immer nach der zweiten Ordnung. Dies Reaktionen wurden mit den Kondensationen von reinem Mono- und Dimethylolharnstoff verglichen und mit ihnen analog befunden. In neutraler Lösung bei Messungen bei 65, 75 und 85° war der erhaltene Wert der Aktivierungsenergie 21 Kal./Mol für beide Reaktionen; die Kondensationsreaktion im Verhältnis 1:2 ist jedoch drei Mal langsamer als die Kondensation 1:1. In saurer Lösung wurde gefunden, dass eine rein saure katalytische Wirkung auftritt, und die Reaktionsgeschwindigkeiten zwischen pH 3 und pH 5 waren der Wasserstoffionenkonzentration proportionell; die Aktivierungsenergie wurde für die saure Kondensationsreaktion zu ungefähr 8-10 Kal. abgeschätzt. Bei höheren pH Werten treten beide Reaktionen, die thermische und die Säure-katalysierte, zusammen auf, und der Exponent der Wasserstoffionenkonzentration in dem Ausdruck der Kondensationsgeschwindigkeit wird kleiner als die Einheit. Es werden analytische Bestimmungen der Kondensationsprodukte gegeben, und ein wahrscheinliches kinetisches Schema der Reaktionen wird angegeben.
    Notes: The condensation reaction of urea and formaldehyde was studied in a molar ratio 1:1 and 1:2 of both components; the reaction always proceeds by a second-order mechanism. These reactions were compared and found analogous to the condensations of pure mono- and dimethylolurea. In neutral medium, by measuring at 65, 75, and 85° the value obtained for the energy of activation was 21 kcal./mole for both reactions; the 1:2 ratio-condensation reaction is nevertheless three times slower than the 1:1 condensation. In acidic medium, a pure acid catalytic effect was found to be true, and the rates of the reaction between pH 3 and pH 5 were proportional to the hydrogen-ion concentration; the activation energy was evaluated at about 8-10 kcal. for the acidic condensation reaction. At higher pH values, both reactions, thermal and acid-catalytic, occur together, and the exponent to the hydrogen-ion concentration in the expression of the rate of condensation appears to be smaller than unity. Analytical determinations of the condensation products are given and a likely kinetic scheme for the reaction is indicated.
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  • 7
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Hoboken, NJ : Wiley-Blackwell
    Journal of Polymer Science 10 (1953), S. 525-542 
    ISSN: 0022-3832
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Polymer and Materials Science
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Physics
    Notes: Initial rates of polymerization in the presence of benzoyl peroxide as initiator have been determined for methyl methacrylate, vinyl acetate, and vinyl chloride in order to determine the order of reaction with respect to the monomer concentration. In the case of methyl methacrylate, the order of reaction is 1 if benzene is used as solvent; with tert-butylbenzene, the order of reaction is more complex, and can be interpreted by a “complex” formation mechanism (Mark-Josefowitz) or by cage effect (Matheson). In the case of vinyl chloride and vinyl acetate in the presence, respectively, of ethyl chloride and ethyl acetate as solvent, the order of reaction has been evaluated to 3/2 vs. monomer concentration. On the contrary, addition of benzene, even in small quantities, produces a strong decrease in rate of polymerization in the case of vinyl acetate, and makes it illusory to determine the order of reaction at high monomer concentrations. Preliminary results using azo-bis-isobutyronitrile as initiator for vinyl acetate with benzene as solvent have shown that the considerable influence exerted by benzene in the previous case cannot be attributed to a difference of rate of decomposition of the peroxide only. The results are interpretd by the mechanism of chain-transfer reactions on the solvent, with formation of radicals from which the relative stability is different from that of the growing chains.
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  • 8
    ISSN: 0022-3832
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Polymer and Materials Science
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Physics
    Notes: It is possible to obtain a polyampholyte characterized by the presence of primary amine and carboxylic functions by a method based on the mutual reaction of functional groups along the polymeric chain. The great advantage of this method is the production of copolymers of a new type, from which the internal structure is well defined. In the present case the method is based upon interaction of an acyl chloride unit with a neighboring isocyanate function; these isocyanate functions have been introduced into the chains by two different methods, the Curtius reaction (sodium azide on polyacroyl chloride) and the Lossen reaction (hydroxylamine base on polyacroyl chloride). The solvents used were dioxane and dimethylformamide; the reactions were performed at ebullition. Higher boiling solvents yield an increasing amount of insoluble material. Both syntheses give end-products with the same properties. The structure of the polymers has been established from conductometric and potentiometric titration curves and also from nitrogen analysis. It was found that the interactions produce the formation of rings along the chain, and that these interactions are limited, as can be foreseen from statistical reasons; the residual groups remain free and become carboxylic functions after hydrolysis, or they react further and are transformed into amino functions. The final products are to be considered as copolymers of vinylamine and acrylic acid with a predominant alternate structure, and in which a given amount of amino groups have reacted with a neighboring acid function yielding lactam rings. However, these pyrrolidone units may be easily opened by alkaline hydrolysis, yielding thereby a polymeric chain with free amino and carboxylic functions, from which the proportions are approximately equivalent at high nitrogen content (12.5-13% N2). At lower nitrogen content the proportion of free carboxylic functions predominates; e.g., at 9.8% N2 there is an excess of 24% acidic functions. Determinations before and after hydrolysis allow the establishment of the internal structure of the copolymers; the proposed structure has been confirmed by benzoylation and deamination reaction and analysis of the benzoylated and deaminated copolymers.
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  • 9
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Hoboken, NJ : Wiley-Blackwell
    Journal of Polymer Science 23 (1957), S. 915-930 
    ISSN: 0022-3832
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Polymer and Materials Science
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Physics
    Notes: The Hofmann degradation reaction has been applied to polyvinylamides in order to obtain aminocarboxylic polyampholytes. When the reaction is effected in aqueous solution, interactions occur between isocyanate and neighboring chloroimide ions, with the formation of butyrolactam ring units incorporated in the polymeric chain. The structural composition of the polymers has been determined on the basis of the following analytical results: total and volatile nitrogen, total and ionic chlorine, and conductometric and potentiometric titrations. In the case of polymethacrylamide the end product consists of about 57% lactam rings, 28% free amine chlorohydrate, and 8% methacrylic acid units, while about 5 to 6% amide groups remain unreacted. In the case of polyacrylamide the degree of conversion is usually lower; this difference in behavior has been interpreted as being due to the high substitution in the methacrylic derivative. When the reaction is effected in water-methanol (50/50) solution, any ring formation is absent; contrariwise, the isocyanate functions are transformed into carbamate units. In alcoholic medium it is possible to obtain polymers containing about 50% carbamic functions, as well as small amounts of free amines (3%); the residual percentages are acid or unreacted amide groups. On alkaline hydrolysis of these carbamic functions, free amine functions are produced; however, the rate of hydrolysis is very low if compared to that of usual amides. This effect has been attributed to the nitrogen substitution in the carbamate units and to the electrostatic repulsion effect of the carboxylate functions toward the hydroxyl ion. For verification, the alkaline hydrolysis rate constants of N-isopropyl methylcarbamate have been compared with those of methylcarbamate; they were found to be about ten times slower. Moreover, the corresponding activation energy of alkaline hydrolysis was 18.7 kcal./mole instead of 14.1 in the case of the unsubstituted methylcarbamate. The products obtained by Hofmann degradation on polymethacrylamide have been compared to those obtained by Lossen rearrangement reaction on polymethacroyl chloride; the structural units were found to be identical in both cases.
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  • 10
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Hoboken, NJ : Wiley-Blackwell
    Journal of Polymer Science 29 (1958), S. 257-274 
    ISSN: 0022-3832
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Polymer and Materials Science
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Physics
    Notes: The kinetics of polymerization of vinylene carbonate have been studied as a function of the concentration of initiator, the concentration of monomer, and the temperature. In acetone solution, the order of reaction with respect to the concentration of initiator is equal to 0.5, independent of the monomer concentration ((M) = 4.15 and 14.7 mole/l.); moreover any thermal polymerization is absent at 70°C. Contrary in ethylbenzoate ((M) = 3.41 mole/l. at 77°C.) the apparent order with respect to the initiator is 0.77; in agreement with the results of Scanlan in the case of vinylacetate. This behavior is interpreted on the basis of an efficiency factor q, corresponding to the fraction of solvent radicals able to reinitiate a growing chain. In ethylbenzoate solution this factor q is equal to 0.45 and 0.80 for vinylene carbonate and vinylacetate, respectively. With respect to the monomer concentration, the order of the reaction is 1 in the presence of ethylene carbonate as solvent over the total range of concentrations. The transfer constant with this solvent is negligible because it results from molecular weight determinations at constant initiator concentration. In acetone and in benzene the apparent order of reaction is 1, only in dilute solutions; in concentrated solutions small amounts of solvent cause a strong decrease of the rates of reactions. This behavior has been interpreted on the basis of a general kinetic scheme, in which the cross-termination rate constant Φ and the chain transfer constant with the solvent are the predominant factors. In ethylbenzoate the reaction is characterized by a partial degradative chain transfer. The overall activation energy of the polymerization of vinylene carbonate is 22.2 kcal./mole and the coefficient A of the Arrhenius equation is equal to 3.0 × 10-9.
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