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  • 2
    Publication Date: 2005-03-01
    Print ISSN: 0024-3590
    Electronic ISSN: 1939-5590
    Topics: Biology , Geosciences , Physics
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    Publication Date: 2020-02-06
    Description: The potential of mining seafloor massive sulfide deposits for metals such as Cu, Zn, and Au is currently debated. One key challenge is to predict where the largest deposits worth mining might form, which in turn requires understanding the pattern of subseafloor hydrothermal mass and energy transport. Numerical models of heat and fluid flow are applied to illustrate the important role of fault zone properties (permeability and width) in controlling mass accumulation at hydrothermal vents at slow spreading ridges. We combine modeled mass-flow rates, vent temperatures, and vent field dimensions with the known fluid chemistry at the fault-controlled Logatchev 1 hydrothermal field of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. We predict that the 135 kilotons of SMS at this site (estimated by other studies) can have accumulated with a minimum depositional efficiency of 5% in the known duration of hydrothermal venting (58,200 year age of the deposit). In general, the most productive faults must provide an efficient fluid pathway while at the same time limit cooling due to mixing with entrained cold seawater. This balance is best met by faults that are just wide and permeable enough to control a hydrothermal plume rising through the oceanic crust. Model runs with increased basal heat input, mimicking a heat flow contribution from along-axis, lead to higher mass fluxes and vent temperatures, capable of significantly higher SMS accumulation rates. Nonsteady state conditions, such as the influence of a cooling magmatic intrusion beneath the fault zone, also can temporarily increase the mass flux while sustaining high vent temperatures.
    Type: Article , PeerReviewed
    Format: text
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  • 5
    Publication Date: 2020-02-06
    Description: Microbathymetry data, in situ observations, and sampling along the 138200N and 138200N oceanic core complexes (OCCs) reveal mechanisms of detachment fault denudation at the seafloor, links between tectonic extension and mass wasting, and expose the nature of corrugations, ubiquitous at OCCs. In the initial stages of detachment faulting and high-angle fault, scarps show extensive mass wasting that reduces their slope. Flexural rotation further lowers scarp slope, hinders mass wasting, resulting in morphologically complex chaotic terrain between the breakaway and the denuded corrugated surface. Extension and drag along the fault plane uplifts a wedge of hangingwall material (apron). The detachment surface emerges along a continuous moat that sheds rocks and covers it with unconsolidated rubble, while local slumping emplaces rubble ridges overlying corrugations. The detachment fault zone is a set of anostomosed slip planes, elongated in the alongextension direction. Slip planes bind fault rock bodies defining the corrugations observed in microbathymetry and sonar. Fault planes with extension-parallel stria are exposed along corrugation flanks, where the rubble cover is shed. Detachment fault rocks are primarily basalt fault breccia at 138200N OCC, and gabbro and peridotite at 138300N, demonstrating that brittle strain localization in shallow lithosphere form corrugations, regardless of lithologies in the detachment zone. Finally, faulting and volcanism dismember the 138300N OCC, with widespread present and past hydrothermal activity (Semenov fields), while the Irinovskoe hydrothermal field at the 138200N core complex suggests a magmatic source within the footwall. These results confirm the ubiquitous relationship between hydrothermal activity and oceanic detachment formation and evolution.
    Type: Article , PeerReviewed
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  • 6
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    Wiley
    In:  In: Encyclopedia of Maritime and Offshore Engineering. , ed. by Carlton, J., Choo, Y. S. and Jukes, P. Wiley, Hoboken, pp. 1-10.
    Publication Date: 2017-12-01
    Description: Seafloor massive sulfide (SMS) deposits form on and just below the seafloor along submarine tectonic plate boundaries. The deposits form from seawater that circulates through the underlying crust, is heated, leaches metals and sulfur from the surrounding rock, and then ascends and vents at the seafloor, forming sulfide mineral accumulations rich in Cu, Zn, Pb, Au, and Ag. Hydrothermal circulation through the crust is driven by shallow magmatic heat sources along the plate boundaries. Although high temperature “black smoker” chimneys and the unique ecosystems that they support are the most recognizable features of these vent sites, the mineral deposits can take on a variety of forms, from individual chimneys of less than a meter tall to large mounds with diameters of several hundred meters. The description of the deposits as “massive” refers to the high proportion (typically over 60%) of sulfide minerals that make up the deposits. Other minerals that commonly occur in SMS deposits are sulfates (barite and anhydrite), amorphous silica, and clay minerals. At the time of writing, more than 500 sites of high temperature seafloor hydrothermal systems and related mineral deposits have been found of the seafloor.
    Type: Book chapter , NonPeerReviewed
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  • 7
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    AGU (American Geophysical Union) | Wiley
    In:  Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems, 16 (12). pp. 4449-4478.
    Publication Date: 2019-09-23
    Description: The Atlantis II Deep of the Red Sea hosts the largest known hydrothermal ore deposit on the ocean floor and the only modern analog of brine pool-type metal deposition. The deposit consists mainly of chemical-clastic sediments with input from basin-scale hydrothermal and detrital sources. A characteristic feature is the millimeter-scale layering of the sediments, which bears a strong resemblance to banded iron formation (BIF). Quantitative assessment of the mineralogy based on relogging of archived cores, detailed petrography, and sequential leaching experiments shows that Fe-(oxy)hydroxides, hydrothermal carbonates, sulfides, and authigenic clays are the main “ore” minerals. Mn-oxides were mainly deposited when the brine pool was more oxidized than it is today, but detailed logging shows that Fe-deposition and Mn-deposition also alternated at the scale of individual laminae, reflecting short-term fluctuations in the Lower Brine. Previous studies underestimated the importance of nonsulfide metal-bearing components, which formed by metal adsorption onto poorly crystalline Si-Fe-OOH particles. During diagenesis, the crystallinity of all phases increased, and the fine layering of the sediment was enhanced. Within a few meters of burial (corresponding to a few thousand years of deposition), biogenic (Ca)-carbonate was dissolved, manganosiderite formed, and metals originally in poorly crystalline phases or in pore water were incorporated into diagenetic sulfides, clays, and Fe-oxides. Permeable layers with abundant radiolarian tests were the focus for late-stage hydrothermal alteration and replacement, including deposition of amorphous silica and enrichment in elements such as Ba and Au.
    Type: Article , PeerReviewed
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  • 8
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    AGU (American Geophysical Union) | Wiley
    In:  Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems, 16 (6). pp. 1950-1961.
    Publication Date: 2017-04-12
    Description: High-resolution magnetic surveys have been acquired over the partially sedimented Palinuro massive sulfide deposits in the Aeolian volcanic arc, Tyrrhenian Sea. Surveys flown close to the seafloor using an autonomous underwater vehicle (AUV) show that the volcanic-arc-related basalt-hosted hydrothermal site is associated with zones of lower magnetization. This observation reflects the alteration of basalt affected by hydrothermal circulation and/or the progressive accumulation of a nonmagnetic deposit made of hydrothermal and volcaniclastic material and/or a thermal demagnetization of titanomagnetite due to the upwelling of hot fluids. To discriminate among these inferences, estimate the shape of the nonmagnetic deposit and the characteristics of the underlying altered area—the stockwork—we use high-resolution vector magnetic data acquired by the AUV Abyss (GEOMAR) above a crater-shaped depression hosting a weakly active hydrothermal site. Our study unveils a relatively small nonmagnetic deposit accumulated at the bottom of the depression and locked between the surrounding volcanic cones. Thermal demagnetization is unlikely but the stockwork extends beyond the limits of the nonmagnetic deposit, forming lobe-shaped zones believed to be a consequence of older volcanic episodes having contributed in generating the cones.
    Type: Article , PeerReviewed
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  • 9
    Publication Date: 2018-07-18
    Description: Hydrothermal fluids passing through basaltic rocks along mid-ocean ridges are known to be enriched in sulfide, while those circulating through ultramafic mantle rocks are typically elevated in hydrogen. Therefore, it has been estimated that the maximum energy in basalt-hosted systems is available through sulfide oxidation and in ultramafic-hosted systems through hydrogen oxidation. Furthermore, thermodynamic models suggest that the greatest biomass potential arises from sulfide oxidation in basalt-hosted and from hydrogen oxidation in ultramafic-hosted systems. We tested these predictions by measuring biological sulfide and hydrogen removal and subsequent autotrophic CO2 fixation in chemically distinct hydrothermal fluids from basalt-hosted and ultramafic-hosted vents. We found a large potential of microbial hydrogen oxidation in naturally hydrogen-rich (ultramafic-hosted) but also in naturally hydrogen-poor (basalt-hosted) hydrothermal fluids. Moreover, hydrogen oxidation–based primary production proved to be highly attractive under our incubation conditions regardless whether hydrothermal fluids from ultramafic-hosted or basalt-hosted sites were used. Site-specific hydrogen and sulfide availability alone did not appear to determine whether hydrogen or sulfide oxidation provides the energy for primary production by the free-living microbes in the tested hydrothermal fluids. This suggests that more complex features (e.g., a combination of oxygen, temperature, biological interactions) may play a role for determining which energy source is preferably used in chemically distinct hydrothermal vent biotopes.
    Type: Article , PeerReviewed
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  • 10
    Publication Date: 2017-09-26
    Description: Mid-ocean spreading and accompanying hydrothermal activities result in huge areas with exposure of minerals rich in reduced chemicals – basaltic and peridotitic rocks as well as metal sulfide precipitates – to the oxygenated seawater. Oxidation of Fe and S present in these rocks provides an extensive long-term source of energy to lithotrophs. Investigation of lipid biomarkers and their carbon isotope ratios from a massive iron sulfide of an inactive sulfide mound or inactive chimney sampled at the western flank of the Turtle-Pits hydrothermal field (Mid-Atlantic Ridge, 5°S) revealed a unique lipid distribution. The bacterial fauna appears to be dominated by chemolithotrophs with a distinct lipid composition mainly comprising of iso-branched fatty acids and nonisoprenoidal dialkyl glycerol diethers partially including the very rare macrocyclic cores with 30–35 carbon atoms (including 13,16-dimethyloctacosane and 5,13,16-trimethyloctacosane). The Bacteria are accompanied by most likely hydrogen/CO2-dependent methanogenic Archaea (e.g. Methanococcus) as well as other Archaea with a different life style (e.g. Ferroplasma). Alike some of the bacterial lipids the archaeal lipids predominantly consist of macrocyclic diethers including one C40 and one C41 isoprenoid. Structural homologues of the latter are so far only reported from a methanogenic archaeum and a Pleistocene sulfur deposit. Compound-specific analyses of the stable isotope ratios revealed δ13C values for the majority of bacterial and archaeal lipid components of about 0‰ (vs. VPDB), indicative for chemolithoautotrophically fixed carbon which is, for distinct pathways, accompanied by only negligible fractionations. However, the presence of methanogenic Archaea is indicated by 13C-depleted isoprenoidal lipids (δ13C ~ –50‰) characteristic for certain CO2-reducing methanogens synthesizing lipids via acetyl CoA.
    Type: Article , PeerReviewed
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