ALBERT

Description: The physical mechanisms governing slow earthquakes remain unknown, as does the relationship between slow and regular earthquakes. To investigate the mechanism(s) of slow earthquakes and related quasi-dynamic modes of fault slip we performed laboratory experiments on simulated fault gouge in the double direct shear configuration. We reproduced the full spectrum of slip behavior, from slow to fast stick-slip, by altering the elastic stiffness of the loading apparatus (k) to match the critical rheologic stiffness of fault gouge (k c ). Our experiments show an evolution from stable sliding, when k 〉 k c , to quasi-dynamic transients when k ~ k c , to dynamic instabilities when k 〈 k c . To evaluate the micro-physical processes of fault weakening we monitored variations of elastic properties. We find systematic changes in P-wave velocity (V p ) for laboratory seismic cycles. During the coseismic stress drop, seismic velocity drops abruptly, consistent with observations on natural faults. In the preparatory phase preceding failure, we find that accelerated fault creep causes a V p reduction for the complete spectrum of slip behaviors. Our results suggest that the mechanics of slow and fast ruptures share key features and that they can occur on same faults, depending on frictional properties. In agreement with seismic surveys on tectonic faults our data show that their state of stress can be monitored by V p changes during the seismic cycle. The observed reduction in V p during the earthquake preparatory phase suggests that if similar mechanisms are confirmed in nature high resolution monitoring of fault zone properties may be a promising avenue for reliable detection of earthquake precursors.

Description: We present results from a comprehensive laboratory study of the frictional strength and constitutive properties for all three active strands of the San Andreas Fault penetrated in the San Andreas Observatory at Depth (SAFOD). The SAFOD borehole penetrated the Southwest Deforming Zone (SDZ), the Central Deforming Zone (CDZ), both of which are actively creeping, and the Northeast Boundary Fault (NBF). Our results include measurements of the frictional properties of cuttings and core samples recovered at depths of ~2.7 km. We find that materials from the two actively creeping faults exhibit low frictional strengths (μ = ~0.1), velocity-strengthening friction behavior, and near zero or negative rates of frictional healing. Our experimental dataset shows that the center of the CDZ is the weakest section of the San Andreas Fault, with μ = ~0.10. Fault weakness is highly localized and likely caused by abundant magnesium-rich clays. In contrast, serpentine from within the SDZ, and wall rock of both the SDZ and CDZ, exhibit velocity-weakening friction behavior and positive healing rates, consistent with nearby repeating microearthquakes. Finally, we document higher friction coefficients (μ 〉0.4) and complex rate dependent behavior for samples recovered across the NBF. In total, our data provide an integrated view of fault behavior for the three active fault strands encountered at SAFOD, and offer a consistent explanation for observations of creep and microearthquakes along weak fault zones within a strong crust.

Description: We investigate dynamic-wave triggered slip under laboratory shear conditions. The experiment is comprised of a 3-block system containing two gouge layers composed of glass beads and held in place by a fixed load in a bi-axial configuration. When the system is sheared under steady state conditions at a normal load of 4 MPa, we find that shear failure may be instantaneously triggered by a dynamic wave, corresponding to material weakening and softening if the system is in a critical shear-stress state (near failure). Following triggering, the gouge material remains in a perturbed state over multiple slip cycles as evidenced by the recovery of the material strength, shear modulus and slip recurrence time. This work suggests that faults must be critically stressed to trigger under dynamic conditions and that the recovery process following a dynamically triggered event differs from the recovery following a spontaneous event.

Description: Interseismic recovery of fault strength (healing) following earthquake failure is a fundamental requirement of the seismic cycle and likely plays a key role in determining the stability and slip behavior of tectonic faults. We report on laboratory measurements of time- and slip-dependent frictional strengthening for natural and synthetic gouges to evaluate the role of mineralogy in frictional strengthening. We performed slide-hold-slide (SHS) shearing experiments on nine natural fault gouges and eight synthetic gouges at conditions of 20 MPa normal stress, 100% relative humidity (RH), large shear strain (~15), and room temperature. Phyllosilicate-rich rocks show the lowest rates of frictional strengthening. Samples rich in quartz and feldspar exhibit intermediate rates of frictional strengthening and calcite-rich gouges show the largest values. Our results show that: (1) the rates of frictional strengthening and creep relaxation scale with frictional strength, (2) phyllosilicate-rich fault gouges have low strength and healing characteristics that promote stable, aseismic creep, (3) most natural fault gouges exhibit intermediate rates of frictional strengthening, consistent with a broad range of fault slip behaviors, and (4) calcite-rich fault rocks show the highest rates of frictional strengthening, low values of dilation upon reshear, and high frictional strengths, all of which would promote seismogenic behavior.

Description: Among the most fascinating, recent discoveries in seismology are the phenomena of dynamically triggered fault slip, including earthquakes, tremor, slow and silent slip—during which little seismic energy is radiated—and low frequency earthquakes. Dynamic triggering refers to the initiation of fault slip by a transient deformation perturbation, most often in the form of passing seismic waves. Determining the frictional constitutive laws and the physical mechanism(s) governing triggered faulting is extremely challenging because slip nucleation depths for tectonic faults cannot be probed directly. Of the spectrum of slip behaviors, triggered slow slip is particularly difficult to characterize due to the absence of significant seismic radiation, implying mechanical conditions different from triggered earthquakes. Slow slip is often accompanied by nonvolcanic tremor in close spatial and temporal proximity. The causal relationship between them has implications for the properties and physics governing the fault slip behavior. We are characterizing the physical controls of triggered slow slip via laboratory experiments using sheared granular media to simulate fault gouge. Granular rock and glass beads are sheared under constant normal stress, while subjected to transient stress perturbation by acoustic waves. Here we describe experiments with glass beads, showing that slow and silent slip can be dynamically triggered on laboratory faults by ultrasonic waves. The laboratory triggering may take place during stable sliding (constant friction and slip velocity) and/or early in the slip cycle, during unstable sliding (stick-slip). Experimental evidence indicates that the nonlinear-dynamical response of the gouge material is responsible for the triggered slow slip.

Description: Abstract Sand‐shale mélanges from the Kodiak Accretionary Complex and Shimanto Belt of Japan record deformation during underthrusting along a paleosubduction interface in the range 150 to 350°C. We use observations from these mélanges to construct a simple kinetic model that estimates the maximum time required to seal a single fracture as a measure of the rate of fault zone healing. Crack sealing involves diffusive redistribution of Si from mudstones with scaly fabric to undersaturated fluid‐filled cracks in sandstone blocks. Two driving forces are considered for the chemical potential gradient that drives crack sealing: 1) a transient drop in fluid pressure ∆Pf , and 2) a difference in mean stress between scaly slip surfaces in mudstones and cracks in stronger sandstone blocks. Sealing times are more sensitive to mean stress than ∆Pf, with up to four orders of magnitude faster sealing. Sealing durations are dependent on crack‐spacing, silica diffusion kinetics, and magnitude of the strength contrast between block and matrix, each of which are loosely constrained for conditions relevant to the seismogenic zone. We apply the model to three active subduction zones and find that sealing rates are fastest along Cascadia and several orders of magnitude slower for a given depth along Nicaragua and Tohoku slab‐top geotherms. The model provides: 1) a framework for geochemical processes that influence subduction mechanics via crack sealing and shear fabric development and 2) demonstration that kinetically‐driven mass redistribution during the interseismic period is a plausible mechanism for creating asperities along smooth, sediment‐dominated convergent margins.

Description: We present a unified analysis of physical properties of cataclastic fault rocks collected from surface exposures of the central Alpine Fault at Gaunt Creek and Waikukupa River, New Zealand. Friction experiments on fault gouge and intact samples of cataclasite were conducted at 30–33 MPa effective normal stress (σn′) using a double-direct shear configuration and controlled pore fluid pressure in a true triaxial pressure vessel. Samples from a scarp outcrop on the southwest bank of Gaunt Creek display (1) an increase in fault normal permeability (k = 7.45 × 10−20 m2 to k = 1.15 × 10−16 m2), (2) a transition from frictionally weak (μ = 0.44) fault gouge to frictionally strong (μ = 0.50–0.55) cataclasite, (3) a change in friction rate dependence (a-b) from solely velocity strengthening, to velocity strengthening and weakening, and (4) an increase in the rate of frictional healing with increasing distance from the footwall fluvioglacial gravels contact. At Gaunt Creek, alteration of the primary clay minerals chlorite and illite/muscovite to smectite, kaolinite, and goethite accompanies an increase in friction coefficient (μ = 0.31 to μ = 0.44) and fault-perpendicular permeability (k = 3.10 × 10−20 m2 to k = 7.45 × 10−20 m2). Comminution of frictionally strong (μ = 0.51–0.57) cataclasites forms weaker (μ = 0.31–0.50) foliated cataclasites and fault gouges with behaviors associated with aseismic creep at low strain rates. Combined with published evidence of large magnitude (Mw ∼ 8) surface ruptures on the Alpine Fault, petrological observations indicate that shear failure involved frictional sliding within previously formed, velocity-strengthening fault gouge.

Description: Observations of heterogeneous and complex fault slip are often attributed to the complexity of fault structure and/or spatial heterogeneity of fault frictional behavior. Such complex slip patterns have been observed for earthquakes on normal faults throughout central Italy, where many of the M w 6 to 7 earthquakes in the Apennines nucleate at depths where the lithology is dominated by carbonate rocks. To explore the relationship between fault structure and heterogeneous frictional properties, we studied the exhumed Monte Maggio Fault (MMF), located in the northern Apennines. We collected intact specimens of the fault zone, including the principal slip surface and hanging wall cataclasite, and performed experiments at a normal stress of 10 MPa under saturated conditions. Experiments designed to reactivate slip between the cemented principal slip surface and cataclasite show a 3 MPa stress drop as the fault surface fails, then velocity-neutral frictional behavior and significant frictional healing. Overall, our results suggest that 1) earthquakes may readily nucleate in areas of the fault where the slip surface separates massive limestone and are likely to propagate in areas where fault gouge is in contact with the slip surface; 2) postseismic slip is more likely to occur in areas of the fault where gouge is present; and 3) high rates of frictional healing and low creep relaxation observed between solid fault surfaces could lead to significant aftershocks in areas of low stress drop.

Description: Electromagnetic signals have been reported in association with geophysical phenomena including earthquakes, landslides, and volcanic events. Mechanisms suggested to explain seismo-electrical signals include: triboelectricity, piezoelectricity, streaming potentials, and the migration of electron holes, yet the origin of such phenomena remains poorly understood. We present results from laboratory experiments regarding the relationship between electrical and mechanical signals for frictional stick-slip events in sheared soda-lime glass bead layers. The results are interpreted in the context of lattice defect migration and granular force chain mechanics. During stick-slip events, we observe two distinct behaviors delineated by the attainment of a frictional stick-slip steady-state. During initial shear loading, layers charge during stick-slip events and the potential of the system rises. After steady-state stick-slip behavior is attained, the system begins to discharge. Co-seismic signals are characterized by potential drops superimposed on a longer-term trend. We suggest that the observed signal is a convolution of two effects: charging of the forcing blocks and signals associated with the stress state of the material. The long-term charging of the blocks is accomplished by grain boundary movement during theinitial establishment of force chain networks. Short-term signals associated with stick-slip events may originate from produced electron holes. Applied to tectonic faults, our results suggest that electrical signals generated during frictional failure may provide a way to monitor stress and the onset of earthquake rupture. Potential changes could produce detectable signals that may forecast the early stages of failure, providing a modest warning of the event.

Description: Faulting and brittle deformation of mantle rocks occurs in many tectonic settings such as oceanic transform faults, oceanic detachment faults, subduction zones, and continental rifts. However, few data exist that directly explore the frictional properties of peridotite rocks. Improved constraints on the brittle deformation of peridotite is important for a more complete understanding of the rheological properties of the lithosphere. Furthermore, our comparatively detailed understanding of plastic deformation in olivine allows us to explore the possible role of thermally activated intracrystalline deformation mechanisms in macroscopically brittle processes. It has been hypothesized, and some experimental data indicate, that plastic yielding by dislocation glide (low temperature plasticity) determines the direct effect in the rate and state frictional constitutive formulation. Plastic flow may also have important implications for the blunting or necking at asperity contacts that influences the time and/or displacement dependent friction evolution effect and frictional healing. We present results from saw cut experiments on fine grained synthetic olivine fault gouge conducted in a gas-medium deformation apparatus in the temperature range of 400–1000°C with 100 MPa confining pressure. We conducted velocity stepping tests to explore the rate and temperature dependence of sliding stability. We also conducted slide-hold-slide experiments to investigate the time and temperature dependence of fault zone restrengthening (frictional healing). The mechanical data and microstructural observations allow us to explore the role of thermally activated processes in frictional sliding. The data indicate systematic temperature dependenceof rate and state variables that can be attributed to plastic yielding at grain to grain contacts. We explore the implications of such temperature dependent behavior for controlling the base of the seismogenic zone in the oceanic lithosphere, and we seek insight into possible mechanistic models for the interactions between fracture and flow that could lead to improved constraints on the strength of the lithosphere.