ALBERT

Description: We evaluate the spatial and temporal evolution of Earth's long-wavelength surface dynamic topography since the Jurassic using a series of high-resolution global mantle convection models. These models are Earth-like in terms of convective vigour, thermal structure, surface heat-flux and the geographic distribution of heterogeneity. The models generate a degree-2-dominated spectrum of dynamic topography with negative amplitudes above subducted slabs (i.e. circum-Pacific regions and southern Eurasia) and positive amplitudes elsewhere (i.e. Africa, north-western Eurasia and the central Pacific). Model predictions are compared with published observations and subsidence patterns from well data, both globally and for the Australian and southern African regions. We find that our models reproduce the long-wavelength component of these observations, although observed smaller-scale variations are not reproduced. We subsequently define geodynamic rules for how different surface tectonic settings are affected by mantle processes: (i) locations in the vicinity of a subduction zone show large negative dynamic topography amplitudes; (ii) regions far away from convergent margins feature long-term positive dynamic topography; and (iii) rapid variations in dynamic support occur along the margins of overriding plates (e.g. the western US) and at points located on a plate that rapidly approaches a subduction zone (e.g. India and the Arabia Peninsula). Our models provide a predictive quantitative framework linking mantle convection with plate tectonics and sedimentary basin evolution, thus improving our understanding of how subduction and mantle convection affect the spatio-temporal evolution of basin architecture.

Description: Iron (Fe) uptake by the microbial community and the contribution of three different size-fractions was determined during spring phytoplankton blooms in the naturally Fe fertilized area off Kerguelen Islands (KEOPS2). Total Fe uptake in surface waters was on average 34 ± 6 pmol Fe L−1 d−1, and microplankton (〉25 μm size-fraction; 40–69%) and pico-nanoplankton (0.8–25 μm size-fraction; 29–59%) were the main contributors. The share of heterotrophic bacteria (0.2–0.8 μm size-fraction) to total Fe uptake was low at all stations (1–2%). Iron uptake rates normalized to carbon biomass were highest for pico-nanoplankton above the Kerguelen plateau and for microplankton in the downstream plume. We also investigated the potential competition between heterotrophic bacteria and phytoplankton for the access to Fe. Bacterial Fe uptake rates normalized to carbon biomass were highest when bacteria were incubated in the absence of both micro- and pico-nanoplankton. The absence of microplankton resulted in a decrease in bacterial Fe uptake rates by up to 20-fold, while in incubations with the whole microbial community bacterial uptake rates were reduced by 2- to 8-fold. In Fe-fertilized waters, the bacterial Fe uptake rates normalized to carbon biomass were positively correlated with primary production. Taken together, these results demonstrate that heterotrophic bacteria are outcompeted by small sized phytoplankton cells for the access to Fe during the spring bloom development, most likely due to the limitation by organic matter. We conclude that the Fe and carbon cycles are tightly coupled and driven by a~complex interplay of competition and synergy between different members of the microbial community.

Description: The Kerguelen Plateau region in the Indian sector of the Southern Ocean supports annually a large-scale phytoplankton bloom which is naturally fertilized with iron. As part of the second KErguelen Ocean and Plateau compared Study expedition (KEOPS2) in austral spring (October–November 2011), we examined upper-ocean Particulate Organic Carbon (POC) export using the 234Th approach. We aimed at characterizing the spatial and the temporal variability of POC export production at high productivity sites over and downstream the Kerguelen plateau. Export production is compared to a High Nutrient Low Chlorophyll area upstream of the plateau in order to assess the impact of iron-induced productivity on the vertical export of carbon. Deficits in 234Th activities relative to its parent nuclide 238U were observed at all stations in surface waters, indicating that scavenging by particles occurred during the early stages of the phytoplankton bloom. 234Th export was lowest at reference station R-2 (412 ± 134 dpm m–2 d–1) and highest inside a~permanent meander of the Polar Front (PF) at stations E (1995 ± 176 dpm m–2 d–1, second visit E-3) where a detailed time series was obtained as part of a~pseudo-lagrangian study. 234Th export over the central plateau was relatively limited at station A3 early (776 ± 171 dpm m–2 d–1, first visit A3-1) and late in the survey (993 ± 223 dpm m–2 d–1, second visit A3-2), but it was higher at high biomass stations TNS-8 (1372 ± 255 dpm m–2 d–1) and E-4W (1068 ± 208 dpm m–2 d–1) in waters which could be considered as derived from plateau. Limited 234Th export of 973 ± 207 dpm m–2 d–1 was also found in the northern branch of the Kerguelen bloom located downstream of the island, north of the PF (station F-L). The 234Th results support that Fe fertilization increased particle export in all iron fertilized waters. The impact was greatest in the recirculation feature (3–4 fold at 200 m depth), but more moderate over the central Kerguelen plateau and in the northern plume of the Kerguelen bloom (∼2-fold at 200 m depth). The C : Th ratio of large (〉 53 μm) potentially sinking particles collected via sequential filtration using in situ pumping (ISP) systems were used to convert the 234Th flux into a POC export flux. The C : Th ratios of sinking particles were highly variable (range: 3.1 ± 0.1–10.5 ± 0.2 μmol dpm–1) with no clear site related trend, despite the variety of ecosystem responses in the fertilized regions. C : Th ratios showed a decreasing trend between 100 and 200 m depth suggesting preferential loss of carbon relative to 234Th possibly due to heterotrophic degradation and/or grazing activity. Comparison of the C : Th ratios within sinking particles obtained with the drifting sediment traps showed in most cases very good agreement to those collected via ISP deployments (〉 53 μm particles). Carbon export production varied between 3.5 ± 0.9 mmol m–2 d–1 and 11.8 ± 1.3 mmol m–2 d–1 from the upper 100 m and between 1.8 ± 0.9 mmol m–2 d–1 and 8.2 ± 0.9 mmol m–2 d–1 from the upper 200 m. Highest export production was found inside the PF meander with a range of 5.4 ± 0.7 mmol m–2 d–1 to 11.8 ± 1.1 mmol m–2 d–1 at 100 m depth decreasing to 5.3 ± 1.0 mmol m–2 d–1 to 8.2 ± 0.8 mmol m–2 d–1 at 200 m depth over the 19 day survey period. The impact of Fe fertilization is highest inside the PF meander with 2.9- up to 4.5-fold higher carbon flux at 200 m depth in comparison to the HNLC control station. The impact of Fe fertilization was significantly less over the central plateau (stations A3 and E-4W) and in the northern branch of the bloom (station F-L) with 1.6- up to 2.0-fold higher carbon flux compared to the reference station R. Export efficiencies (ratio of export to primary production) were particularly variable with relatively high values in the recirculation feature (6–27%) and low values (1–5%) over the central plateau (station A3) and north of the PF (station F-L) indicating spring biomass accumulation. Comparison with KEOPS1 results indicated that carbon export production is much lower during the onset of the bloom in austral spring in comparison to the peak and declining phase in late summer.

Description: We examined phytoplankton community responses to natural iron fertilisation at 32 sites over and downstream from the Kerguelen Plateau in the Southern Ocean during the austral spring bloom in October–November 2011. Community structure was estimated from chemical and isotopic measurements (particulate organic carbon POC, 13C-POC, particulate nitrogen PN, 15N-PN, and biogenic silica BSi) on size-fractionated samples from surface waters (300, 210, 50, 20, 5, and 1 μm fractions). Higher values of 13C-POC (vs. co-located 13C-DIC source values) were taken as indicative of faster growth rates, and higher values of 15N-PN (vs. co-located 15N-NO3 source values) as indicative of greater nitrate use. Community responses varied in relation to both regional circulation and the advance of the bloom. Iron fertilised waters over the plateau developed dominance by very large diatoms (50–210 μm) with high BSi / POC ratios, high growth rates, and significant ammonium recycling as biomass built up. In contrast, downstream Polar Frontal waters with similar or higher iron supply were dominated by smaller diatoms (20–50 μm) and exhibited greater ammonium recycling. Stations in a deep water bathymetrically trapped recirculation south of the Polar Front with lower iron levels showed the large cell dominance observed on the plateau, but much less biomass. Comparison of these communities to surface water nitrate (and silicate) depletions as a proxy for export shows that the low biomass recirculation feature exported similar amounts of nitrogen to the high biomass blooms over the plateau and north of the Polar Front. This suggests that trophodynamic and export responses differed between regions with persistent low levels vs. punctual high levels of iron fertilisation.

Description: The KEOPS2 project aims to elucidate the role of natural Fe fertilisation on biogeochemical cycles and ecosystem functioning, including quantifying the sources and processes by which iron is delivered in the vicinity of the Kerguelen Archipelago, Southern Ocean. The KEOPS2 process study used an upstream HNLC, deep water (2500 m), reference station to compare with a shallow (500 m), strongly fertilised plateau station and continued the observations to a downstream, bathymetrically trapped recirculation of the Polar Front where eddies commonly form and persist for hundreds of kilometres into the Southern Ocean. Over the Kerguelen Plateau, mean particulate (1–53 μm) Fe and Al concentrations (pFe = 13.4 nM, pAl = 25.2 nM) were more than 20-fold higher than at an offshore (lower-productivity) reference station (pFe = 0.53 nM, pAl = 0.83 nM). In comparison, over the plateau dissolved Fe levels were only elevated by a factor of ∼2. Over the Kerguelen Plateau, ratios of pMn/pAl and pFe/pAl resemble basalt, likely originating from glacial/fluvial inputs into shallow coastal waters. In downstream, offshore deep-waters, higher pFe/pAl, and pMn/pAl ratios were observed, suggesting loss of lithogenic material accompanied by retention of pFe and pMn. Biological uptake of dissolved Fe and Mn and conversion into the biogenic particulate fraction or aggregation of particulate metals onto bioaggregates also increased these ratios further in surface waters as the bloom developed within the recirculation structure. While resuspension of shelf sediments is likely to be one of the important mechanisms of Fe fertilisation over the plateau, fluvial and glacial sources appear to be important to areas downstream of the island. Vertical profiles within an offshore recirculation feature associated with the Polar Front show pFe and pMn levels that were 6-fold and 3.5-fold lower respectively than over the plateau in surface waters, though still 3.6-fold and 1.7-fold higher respectively than the reference station. Within the recirculation feature, strong depletions of pFe and pMn were observed in the remnant winter water (temperature-minimum) layer near 175 m, with higher values above and below this depth. The correspondence between the pFe minima and the winter water temperature minima implies a seasonal cycle is involved in the supply of pFe into the fertilized region. This observed association is indicative of reduced supply in winter, which is counterintuitive if sediment resuspension and entrainment within the mixed layer is the primary fertilising mechanism to the downstream recirculation structure. Therefore, we hypothesise that lateral transport of pFe from shallow coastal waters is strong in spring, associated with snow melt and increased runoff due to rainfall, drawdown through summer and reduced supply in winter when snowfall and freezing conditions predominate in the Kerguelen region.

Description: We present a revised estimate of Earth's surface heat flux that is based upon a heat flow data-set with 38 347 measurements, which is 55% more than used in previous estimates. Our methodology, like others, accounts for hydrothermal circulation in young oceanic crust by utilising a half-space cooling approximation. For the rest of Earth's surface, we estimate the average heat flow for different geologic domains as defined by global digital geology maps; and then produce the global estimate by multiplying it by the total global area of that geologic domain. The averaging is done on a polygon set which results from an intersection of a 1 degree equal area grid with the original geology polygons; this minimises the adverse influence of clustering. These operations and estimates are derived accurately using methodologies from Geographical Information Science. We consider the virtually un-sampled Antarctica separately and also make a small correction for hot-spots in young oceanic lithosphere. A range of analyses is presented. These, combined with statistical estimates of the error, provide a measure of robustness. Our final preferred estimate is 47±2 TW, which is greater than previous estimates.

Description: We present a revised estimate of Earth's surface heat flux that is based upon a heat flow data-set with 38 347 measurements, which is 55% more than used in previous estimates. Our methodology, like others, accounts for hydrothermal circulation in young oceanic crust by utilising a half-space cooling approximation. For the rest of Earth's surface, we estimate the average heat flow for different geologic domains as defined by global digital geology maps; and then produce the global estimate by multiplying it by the total global area of that geologic domain. The averaging is done on a polygon set which results from an intersection of a 1 degree equal area grid with the original geology polygons; this minimises the adverse influence of clustering. These operations and estimates are derived accurately using methodologies from Geographical Information Science. We consider the virtually un-sampled Antarctica separately and also make a small correction for hot-spots in young oceanic lithosphere. A range of analyses is presented. These, combined with statistical estimates of the error, provide a measure of robustness. Our final preferred estimate is 47±2 TW, which is greater than previous estimates.

Description: A method for incorporating multi-resolution capabilities within pre-existing global 3-D spherical mantle convection codes is presented. The method, which we term "geometric multigrid refinement", is based upon the application of a multigrid solver on non-uniform, structured grids and allows for the incorporation of local high-resolution grids within global models. Validation tests demonstrate that the method is accurate and robust, with highly efficient solutions to large-scale non-uniform problems obtained. Significantly, the scheme is conceptually simple and straightforward to implement, negating the need to reformulate and restructure large sections of code. Consequently, although more advanced techniques are under development at the frontiers of mesh refinement and solver technology research, the technique presented is capable of extending the lifetime and applicability of pre-existing global mantle convection codes.

Description: This paper presents whole water column data for nitrate N, O isotopic composition for the Kerguelen Plateau area and the basin extending east of the island, aiming at understanding the N-cycling in this naturally iron fertilized area that is characterized by large re-current phytoplankton blooms. The KEOPS 2 expedition (October–November 2011) took place in spring season and complements knowledge gathered during an earlier summer expedition to the same area (KEOPS 1, February–March 2005). As noted by others a remarkable condition of the system is the moderate consumption of nitrate over the season (nitrate remains 〉 20 μM) while silicic acid becomes depleted, suggesting significant recycling of nitrogen. Nitrate isotopic signatures in the upper water column do mimic this condition, with surprising overlap of spring and summer regressions of δ18ONO3 vs. δ15NNO3 isotopic compositions. These regressions obey rather closely the 18ϵ/15ϵ discrimination expected for nitrate uptake (18ϵ/15ϵ = 1), but regression slopes as large as 1.6 were observed for the mixed layer above the Kerguelen Plateau. A preliminary mass balance calculation for the early bloom period points toward significant nitrification occurring in the mixed layer and which could account for up to 80 % of nitrate uptake above the Kerguelen Plateau. A further finding concerns deep ocean low δ18ONO3 values (〈 2‰) underlying high chlorophyll waters at the Polar Front Zone and which cannot be explained by remineralisation and nitrification of the local particulate nitrogen flux, which is too small in magnitude. However, the studied area is characterised by a complex recirculation pattern that would keep deep waters in the area and could impose a seasonally integrated signature of surface water processes on the deep waters.

Description: The first KErguelen Ocean and Plateau compared Study (KEOPS1), conducted in the naturally iron-fertilised Kerguelen bloom, demonstrated that fecal material was the main pathway for exporting carbon to the deep ocean during summer (January–February~2005), suggesting a~limited role of direct export via phytodetrital aggregates. The KEOPS2 project re-investigated this issue during the spring bloom initiation (October–November 2011), when zooplankton communities may exert limited grazing pressure, and explored further the link between carbon flux, export efficiency and dominant sinking particles depending upon surface plankton community structure. Sinking particles were collected in polyacrylamide gel-filled and standard free-drifting sediment traps (PPS3/3), deployed at six stations between 100 and 400 m to examine flux composition, particle origin and their size distributions. Results revealed an important contribution of phytodetrital aggregates (49 ± 10% and 45 ± 22% of the total number and volume of particles respectively, all stations and depths averaged). This high contribution dropped when converted to carbon content (30 ± 16% of total carbon, all stations and depths averaged), cylindrical fecal pellets representing then the dominant fraction (56 ± 19%). At 100 and 200 m depth, iron and biomass enriched sites exhibited the highest carbon fluxes (maxima of 180 and 84 ± 27 mg C m−2 d−1; based on gel and PPS3/3 trap collection respectively), especially where large fecal pellets dominated over phytodetrital aggregates. Below these depths, carbon fluxes decreased (48 ± 21% decrease in average between 200 and 400 m), and mixed aggregates composed of phytodetritus and fecal matter dominated, suggesting an important role played by physical aggregation in deep carbon export. Export efficiencies determined from gels, PPS3/3 traps and 234Th disequilibria (200 m carbon flux/net primary productivity), were negatively correlated to net primary productivity with observed decreases from ~ 0.2 at low-iron sites to ~ 0.02 at high-iron sites. Varying phytoplankton communities and grazing pressure appear to explain this negative relationship. Our work emphasizes the need to consider detailed plankton community structure to accurately identify the controls on carbon export efficiency, which appear to include small spatio-temporal variations of ecosystem structure.