ALBERT

Description: A simple method to determine the expectation of selected minimum rainfall has been developed on the assumption that monthly or seasonal rainfall is normally distributed over a period of years. Although it is realized that a perfectly normal distribution cannot be obtained, practical experience has shown that the assumption leads to no serious discrepancies and the advantage of simplicity is considerable. A detailed example of its use to forecast the agricultural potentialities of dry lands is given.

Description: 1. The results of six trials have been examined in which pigs received rations with contrasting levels of crude fibre. The contents of crude fibre ranged from 3½ to 11½% and were related to a variety of basal diets.2. The main object of the trials was to study the effect of increased levels of dietary crude fibre on carcass conformation, under conditions where there was no disparity in rate of live -weight gain between the pigs receiving the higher and the lower level of fibre. Thus pigs on the high-fibre diets received extra food in order to equalize the intake of digestible nutrients.3. The results indicate that a rise in the level of dietary crude fibre was accompanied by a fall in the killing-out percentage, and hence by lower carcass weights. This effect was produced even by comparatively small changes, such as a rise from 3½% crude fibre to about 5% crude fibre. The results also show that carcass weight was positively correlated with back-fat thickness to a marked degree.4. It is evident that raising the level of crude fibre in the food caused a change in the distribution of live-weight gains, so that when at the same slaughter weights, the high-fibre pigs had lighter carcasses and heavier offal than their low-fibre counterparts. Consequently the high-fibre pigs also had thinner back-fats, and they would tend to grade better under carcass grading systems based on backfat measurements and biased towards thin back-fats.5. It is suggested that these effects are likely to be produced even in pigs considerably advanced in fattening, and that in younger pigs the drawback of retardation in rate of live-weight gain may also be encountered. Thus the use of high-fibre diets in self-feeding systems, as a corrective against over-fatness, may not normally be the best means of attaining this objective under commercial conditions.

Description: 1. At two centres, Hillsborough and Shinfield, forty-eight pigs in four groups were fattened on rations containing Australian sorghum. The control ration consisted of 30%, wheatfeed, 30% barley meal, 30% maize meal and 10% fish meal. In the three experimental rations either barley meal or maize meal or both were replaced by sorghum.2. The rations containing 30% of sorghum proved to be equal to the control ration as far as live-weight gain of the pigs and the efficiency with which they utilized food was concerned. When 60% of the ration consisted of sorghum there were indications that both rate of gain and food utilization suffered.3. Some aspects of carcass quality suffered when either sorghum alone or sorghum plus maize formed 60% of the ration. The quality of the control carcasses, although quite good by present-day standards, would not qualify for first grade when commercial grading is re-introduced.4. Bacon produced on rations containing up to 60% sorghum had no off-taste or unpleasant flavour.5. In general, the value of sorghum in the ration of fattening pigs was found to be about equal to that of maize.

Description: Four experiments dealing with attempts to induce pregnancy in the anoestrous ewe during the summer of 1948 are described. While little has been accomplished towards a practical solution of the problem of regularly inducing such pregnancies, some light has been thrown on reasons for past failures and erratic results. The following conclusions are drawn:1. In the absence of a spontaneous corpus luteum, ovulation without heat may be induced in anoestrus by 800 i.u. PMS.2. In the presence of a waning corpus luteum ovulation with heat may be induced in anoestrus by 800 i.u. PMS.3. In the presence of an active corpus luteum neither ovulation nor heat is induced in anoestrus by 800 i.u. PMS. Occasionally, however, heat may occur without ovulation and with the formation of grossly cystic ovaries.4. In mid-anoestrus ovulation is not regularly induced by 800 i.u. PMS, due presumably to very low pituitary and ovarian activity.5. Anoestrus in the ewe is a relative rather than an absolute quiescence, and it is suggested that there is a rhythm of pituitary activity roughly inversely related to the daylight/dark rhythm, deep anoestrus occurring about the time of the longest day. Thus at different stages of anoestrus, different response to the same treatment may be expected in accordance with the proportion of animals falling into the categories 1–4 above.6. Artificially formed corpora lutea are apparently perfectly normal as regards size, colour and function.7. Treatment with PMS alone is sufficient to cause follicular maturation, ovulation and corpus luteum formation. There is some evidence, however, that the anoestrous ewe has some difficulty in ovulating all the follicles matured. The subcutaneous use of Prolan does not alleviate this difficulty, but injection of stilboestrol at about the time ovulation is due, may have some effect.8. The mean ovulation rate of ewes ovulating after 800 i.u. PMS is usually rather higher than the normal for the breed and many cases of definite multiple ovulation have been observed. For this to occur the presence of an old corpus luteum is not necessary. A maximum of six ova have been shed.9. In mid-anoestrus Welsh ewes show a higher resistance to PMS action than do Suffolks, both as regards numbers ovulating and ovulation rates of those responding.10. Injection of PMS in increasing divided doses is no more effective in inducing heat than is a single injection. Ovulation without heat occurs as soon as a certain threshold of stimulation (probably about 400 i.u.) is reached.11. Previous findings have been confirmed that, unless modified by the presence of a spontaneous corpus luteum, ovulation will normally occur within 48 hr. of injection.12. When 35 mg. testosterone propionate is administered 24 hr. before 800 i.u. PMS, heat, usually without ovulation, will occur in a high proportion of ewes. Where ovulation does occur it rarely coincides with heat.13. When testosterone propionate is injected with or after PMS the results are much more variable, depending upon whether or not it is absorbed in time to play a role.14. Testosterone propionate, while inhibiting ovulation, does not inhibit follicular development.15. Testosterone propionate has no oestrogenic effect. Its action in inducing oestrus in conjunction with PMS has been discussed.16. The low percentage recovery of fertilized ova following service is attributed to faulty timing between service and ovulation in some cases. In others it may be due to either the ova being potentially unfertilizable or to the uterine and tubal environments being unsuitable for transport of sperm and fertilization. The latter view is favoured.17. When heat and ovulation occur as a result of PMS injection in the presence of a waning corpus luteum, normal service, sperm transport and fertilization occur.

Description: 1. The results are presented of a survey of early cut hays, by the tripod and ground-cured methods, from fifteen ryegrass swards and six ryegrass-clover swards in Northern Ireland.2. The effect of date of cutting on quality is discussed.3. The losses in conservation at two centres included in this survey are presented. Losses of 15·9 and 13·3% are recorded for the tripod method.4. A trial designed to produce high-quality hays from specially managed swards by these two methods is described. The results obtained in relation to conservation losses and the digestibilities of these hays are considered. Field losses of dry matter ranged from 3 to 16·5% for the tripod method and 9–27% for the ground-cured. The tripod hays had starch equivalents of 47, 48·2 and 51·5; those of the corresponding ground-cured hays were 41·5, 38·2 and 51·8.5. It is suggested that the tripod method as applied to swards of the type used in the second experiment offers a means of securing a high degree of conservation.

Description: In the course of two breeding seasons 137 mature to aged ewes of mixed breeds but predominantly Border Leicester × Cheviots, Dorset × Cheviots, Suffolks and Hampshires and their crosses, have been injected with PMS or PU, and at different levels of dosage, and slaughtered at intervals after service to determine the sequence of events following treatment. In addition ten ewe lambs received similar treatment and eighty-one flock Suffolk and Romney Marsh ewes, of which forty-nine were injected, have been studied. The results may be summarized as follows:1. The injection of 500–2000 i.u. PMS on the 12th day of the oestrous cycle will regularly induce multiple ovulations at the ensuing heat.2. There is a significant dose-response relationship between 500 and 2000 i.u. PMS. Mean ovulation rates observed were: 500 i.u., 4·1; 1000 i.u., 10·6; 2000 i.u., 15·8. There is, however, considerable variation, the ranges being 2–9, 4–33 and 8–29 respectively.3. The injection of 1000 i.u. PU subcutaneously on the 12th day of the cycle causes marked ovarian and cyclic abnormalities, and heat may be entirely suppressed. When injected intravenously at heat following a priming injection with PMS on the 12th day there is no evidence that it increases the rate of ovulation; in other words, the ewe can ovulate up to at least thirty ova without difficulty, provided the follicles are matured.4. PMS levels of 500 and 1000 i.u. do not cause any apparent ovarian abnormalities apart from superovulation. A very high proportion of all follicles developed rupture and form apparently normal corpora lutea. PMS at 2000 i.u. causes lutein cysts and ovulation may be inhibited.5. PMS at 500 and 1000 i.u. causes no cyclic abnormalities, although cycle length is slightly shortened. In the event of the ewe failing to conceive, the subsequent oestrus is normal, and ovulation and fertilization of the ova occur.6. Commercial PMS is probably as effective as fresh PMS provided it is correctly standardized. There seems no reason to suspect differences in multiple ovulating efficiency between different batches of fresh PMS.7. While breed differences in response possibly exist they were not observed in these experiments. Nor were differences apparently related to the relative time of injection within the breeding season.8. There is an ovarian weight-PMS level, doseresponse relationship which is almost entirely accounted for by the numbers of corpora lutea and hence of luteal tissue.9. Multiple-ovulated ova are highly fertilizable. However, when fifteen or more are shed the rate of tubal transport is considerably accelerated and the proportion fertilized appears to fall. One- and two- cell ova have been recovered from the uterus within 48 hr. of service. Nine fertilized ova have been recovered from one ewe.10. Considerable embryonic mortality occurs before attachment of the blastocysts. None the less, multiple impregnation does occur but is followed by further early death. Up to thirteen attachments have been observed in one ewe, but all but three were showing signs of regression by the 19th day.11. Post-attachment mortality takes the form of an initial retardation commencing about the 15th day, embryos apparently dying a day or so later. The peak of mortality occurs between the 17th and 19th day, by which time definite signs of resorption are apparent.12. By 21 days equilibrium has been reached, the mean numbers of survivals of those ewes pregnant being some 260%. This level is maintained without further loss until the 68th day. Several cases of four normal foetuses were noted up to the 41st day, and one uterus containing six perfectly normal foetuses was recovered at 61 days.13. The overall fertility indicated by these slaughterhouse ewes varies with the level of PMS administered. While equilibrium is achieved by animals conceiving, at about 250–260% viable foetuses, regardless of the dose injected, there is increasing proportion of returns to service with increasing dosage. For the most part this appears due to hormonal imbalance at the time of ovulation and fertilization when an excessive number (〉 15) ova are shed. This results in accelerated ovum transport through the tubes and lowered rate of fertilization. Between ovulation rates of 4 and 12, produced by 500 i.u., rate of conception is extremely high. Of twenty-five ewes receiving 500 i.u. PMS, twenty-three (92%) conceived to the first fertile service. The conception rates were reduced to 80 and 60% by 1000 and 2000 i.u. respectively.14. Although after the end of the 3rd week there is no direct evidence of further foetal mortality, the percentage of lambs born in the flock ewes injected with 500 i.u. PMS was only 192% of those lambing or 167% of all ewes mated (147% for controls). This indicates a loss late in pregnancy. This can in part accounted for by abortion; one ewe aborted, due, is believed, to her carrying more lambs than she was physically capable of retaining.15. OffifteenflockSuffolksinjectedinthe 2nd year with 500 i.u. PMS, thirteen lambed, one aborted and one did not conceive. The thirteen ewes lambing presented twenty-five lambs, including one set triplets and one of quadruplets. All the latter were viable, but two sets of twins were bom dead. One triplet was lost on fostering and one other lamb was lost, so nineteen were tailed. Of fifteen controls, all lambed, giving twenty-one lambs bom of which twenty survived. Conception to first fertile service was higher in the injected than in the control ewes. In the preceding year when 1000 i.u. was given, both conception and lambing rates were appreciably lowered as compared with untreated controls. The significance of this in respect to the level of PMS administered is stressed.16. It is concluded that the major part of the embryonic loss is due to a uterine environment which is incapable of supporting more than a limited number of embryos. It is considered possible that there are breed differences in this, and that each breed, and individual within the breed, has ‘Maximum Potential Fertility’.17. This ‘Maximum Potential Fertility’ is not attained in normal breeding practice, since the number of ova shed by the ewe tends to constitute a limiting factor. Use of a level of PMS which will induce between three and ten ovulations—in the case of this experiment, 500 i.u.—removes this limiting factor, giving the individual full opportunity to express its full potential breeding capabilities.18. There is some indication that the use of PMS in lambs may not give good results, and its use for the while should be restricted to mature ewes.19. Since 500 i.u. PMS has resulted in a higher conception rate to first service and to a greater number of lambs born, it is apparent that this technique of injecting on the 12th day of the cycle a level of PMS which will result in a moderate number of ovulations is worthy of exhaustive field trials, notwithstanding the high post-natal mortality observed in the few cases which were allowed to go to term.20. In view of the higher indicated fertility of the slaughtered ewes which were mainly Border Leicester cross and Dorset × Cheviots—normally very highly fertile ewes as compared with the flock Suffolks—it is considered possible that this technique will yield best results with more highly fertile breeds.21. To have any hope for successful increase of fertility in mammals following gonadotrophin treatment the hormone must be administered at a time and at such a concentration that it will augment, but not upset, normal hypophysial and ovarian function.