ALBERT

Description: Identification of methane sources controlling hydrate distribution and concentrations in continental margins remains a major challenge in gas hydrate research. Lack of deep fluid samples and high quality regional scale seismic reflection data may lead to underestimation of the significance of fluid escape from subducting and compacting sediments in the global inventory of methane reaching the hydrate zone, the water column and the atmosphere. The distribution of concentrated hydrate zones in relation to focused fluid flow across the southern Hikurangi subduction margin was investigated using high quality, long offset (10 km streamer), pre-stack depth migrated multichannel seismic data. Analysis of low P wave velocity zones, bright-reverse polarity reflections and dim-amplitude anomalies reveals pathways for gas escape and zones of gas accumulation. The study shows the structural and stratigraphic settings of three main areas of concentrated hydrates: (1) the Opouawe Bank, dominated by focused periodic fluid input along thrust faults sustaining dynamic hydrate concentrations and gas chimneys development; (2) the frontal anticline, with a basal set of protothrusts controlling permeability for fluids from deeply buried and subducted sediments sustaining hydrate concentrations at the crest of the anticline; and (3) the Hikurangi Channel, with buried sand dominated channels hosting significant amounts of gas beneath the base of the hydrate zone. In sand dominated channels gas injection into the hydrate zone favors highly concentrated hydrate accumulations. The evolution of fluid expulsion controlling hydrate formation offshore southern Hikurangi is described in stages during which different methane sources (in situ, buried and thermogenic) have been dominant.

Description: Three active-source seismic refraction profiles are integrated with morphological and potential field data to place the first regional constraints on the structure of the Kermadec subduction zone. These observations are used to test contrasting tectonic models for an along-strike transition in margin structure previously known as the 32°S boundary. We use residual bathymetry to constrain the geometry of this boundary and propose the name Central Kermadec Discontinuity (CKD). North of the CKD, the buried Tonga Ridge occupies the forearc with VP 6.5–7.3 km s-1 and residual free-air gravity anomalies constrain its latitudinal extent (north of 30.5°S), width (110 ± 20 km) and strike (~005° south of 25°S). South of the CKD the forearc is structurally homogeneous down-dip with VP 5.7–7.3 km s-1. In the Havre Trough backarc, crustal thickness south of the CKD is 8-9 km, which is up-to 4 km thinner than the northern Havre Trough and at least 1 km thinner than the southern Havre Trough. We suggest that the Eocene arc did not extend along the current length of the Tonga-Kermadec trench. The Eocene arc was originally connected to the Three Kings Ridge and the CKD was likely formed during separation and easterly translation of an Eocene arc substrate during the early Oligocene. We suggest that the first-order crustal thickness variations along the Kermadec arc were inherited from before the Neogene and reflect Mesozoic crustal structure, the Cenozoic evolution of the Tonga-Kermadec-Hikurangi margin and along-strike variations in the duration of arc volcanism.

Description: Traveltimes between shots from nine marine seismic reflection lines and nine onshore recorders were used to construct a 3-D P wave velocity model of the northern Hikurangi subduction margin, New Zealand. From north to south between Raukumara Basin and Raukumara Peninsula, the Moho of the overriding plate increases in depth from 17 to similar to 35 km. Low seismic P wave velocities of 3.5-5.0 km/s are localized within a similar to 10 km thick prism in the lower crust of the overriding plate immediately updip of the intersection between the subduction thrust and Moho and beneath the topographic crest of East Cape Ridge and the Raukumara Range. Southward, this region of low seismic velocities and surface uplift increases in distance from the trench as the thickness of the crust in the overriding plate increases. We interpret this low-velocity volume to be underplated sedimentary rocks and crustal materials that were tectonically eroded by subduction beneath the trench slope. The buoyancy and low strength of these subducted materials are proposed to assist the escape from a subduction channel near the base of the crust and drive local rock uplift. In the middle crust, our observations of very low velocity suggest high fluid-filled porosities of 12%-18%, and the implied buoyancy anomaly may enhance underplating. At greater depths the process is driven by the contrast between upper crustal quartz-feldspar mineralogy and the denser diabase or olivine-rich lithologies of the lower crust and mantle. We estimate a rate of lower crustal underplating at the northern Hikurangi margin of 20 +/- 7 km(3) Ma(-1) km(-1) since 22 Ma. We suggest that underplating provides an efficient means of accreting subducted sediment and tectonically eroded material to the lower crust and that the flux of forearc crustal rocks into the mantle at subduction zones may be systematically overestimated.

Description: The Hikurangi Margin east of New Zealand's North Island hosts an extensive gas hydrate province with numerous gas hydrate accumulations related to the faulted structure of the accretionary wedge. One such hydrate feature occurs in a small perched upper‐slope basin known as Urutī Basin. We investigated this hydrate accumulation by combining a long‐offset seismic line (10‐km‐long receiver array) with a grid of high‐resolution seismic lines acquired with a 600‐m‐long hydrophone streamer. The long‐offset data enable quantitative velocity analysis, while the high‐resolution data constrain the three‐dimensional geometry of the hydrate accumulation. The sediments in Urutī Basin dip landward due to ongoing deformation of the accretionary wedge. These strata are clearly imaged in seismic data where they cross a distinct bottom simulating reflection (BSR) that dips counterintuitively in the opposite direction to the regional dip of the seafloor. BSR‐derived heat flow estimates reveal a distinct heat flow anomaly that coincides spatially with the upper extent of a landward‐verging thrust fault. We present a conceptual model of this gas hydrate system that highlights the roles of fault‐controlled fluid flow at depth merging into strata‐controlled fluid flow into the hydrate stability zone. The result is a layer‐constrained accumulation of concentrated gas hydrate in the dipping strata. Our study provides new insight into the interplay between deep faulting, fluid flow and gas hydrate formation within an active accretionary margin. Plain Language Summary Gas hydrates are ice‐like substances in which natural gas molecules are trapped in a cage of water molecules. They exist where the pressure is high, temperature is cold, and enough methane is present. These conditions exist in the marine environment at water depths greater than 300–500 m near sediment‐rich continental margins and in polar regions. It is important to study gas hydrates because they represent a significant part of the Earth's carbon budget and influence the flow of methane into the oceans and atmosphere. In this study, we use the seismic reflection method to generate images of gas‐hydrate‐bearing marine sediments east of New Zealand. Our data reveal an intriguing relationship between deep‐sourced fluid flow upward along a tectonic fault, and shallower flow through dipping sediments. This complex fluid flow pattern has led to disruption of the gas hydrate system and the formation of concentrated gas hydrate deposits within the dipping sediments. Our study highlights the relationships between relatively deep tectonic processes (faulting and fluid flow) and the shallow process of gas hydrate formation in an active subduction zone. Key Points A distinct gas‐hydrate to free‐gas transition is mapped using high‐ and low‐frequency seismic data Gas and hydrate accumulations in the Urutī Basin are controlled by the structural setting, ongoing deep‐sourced fluid flow, and near surface stratigraphy Regions of high modeled heat flow can be directly related to accumulations of gas and gas hydrates