ALBERT

Description: SUMMARY Boundary layer theory is used to derive scaling relationships for plate stresses in a mantle convection system with a low-viscosity asthenosphere. The theory assumes a plate tectonic like mode of mantle convection with flow driven by an active upper boundary layer. The theory predicts that the confinement of horizontal mantle flow within a low-viscosity, sublithospheric channel can lead to an increase in plate stress compared to the case lacking a channel (even if the absolute viscosity of the sublithosphere mantle does not change between the two cases). The theory further predicts increasing shear stress with decreasing low-viscosity channel thickness. If the thickness of tectonic plates is determined dominantly by a dehydrated chemical lithosphere, then the plate normal stress is predicted to also increase with decreasing channel thickness. We use 3-D spherical shell simulations of mantle convection with temperature-, depth- and stress dependent rheology to test scaling trends. The simulations and theoretical scalings demonstrate that a low-viscosity layer (asthenosphere) can amplify convective stresses. If the level of convective stress plays a role in maintaining and/or reactivating plate boundaries, this suggests that a relatively thin low viscosity layer may help to maintain plate tectonics. The numerical simulations support this suggestion as they show that an increase in the thickness of a low viscosity channel can cause the system to transition from an active-lid mode of convection to a stagnant lid state. Collectively, the simulations and theoretical scalings lead to the conclusion that the role of the asthenosphere in maintaining plate tectonics does not come principally from a basal lubrication effect, associated with a low absolute asthenosphere viscosity, but, instead, from a mantle flow channelization effect, associated with a high viscosity contrast from the asthenosphere to the mantle below.

Description: We use simulations of mantle convection with surface yielding to show that multiple tectonic regimes are possible for equivalent system parameter values. Models with the same lithospheric strength parameters and the same vigor of convection can display different modes of tectonics. Within the region of multiple solutions, the evolutionary pathway of the system is the dominant factor that determines the tectonic mode (e.g., whether mantle convection operates in a plate tectonic like mode). The extent of the multiple regimes window is found to increase with the temperature-dependent viscosity contrast across the system. The implication for models that seek to predict the tectonic regimes of planets is that the temporal evolution of the planet needs to be taken into account. A further implication is that modeling studies can lead to different conclusions regarding the tectonic state of a planet, extra-solar planets in particular, despite the final model parameter values remaining equivalent.

Description: Super-continental insulation refers to an increase in mantle temperature below a supercontinent due to the heat transfer inefficiency of thick, stagnant continental lithosphere relative to thinner, subducting oceanic lithosphere. We use thermal network theory, numerical simulations, and laboratory experiments to provide tighter physical insight into this process. We isolate two end-member dynamic regimes. In the thermally well mixed regime the insulating effect of continental lithosphere can not cause a localized increase in mantle temperature due to the efficiency of lateral mixing in the mantle. In this regime the potential temperature of the entire mantle is higher than it would be without continents, the magnitude depending on the relative thickness of continental and oceanic lithosphere (i.e., the insulating effects of continental lithosphere are communicated to the entire mantle). Thermal mixing can be short circuited if subduction zones surround a supercontinent or if the convective flow pattern of the mantle becomes spatially fixed relative to a stationary supercontinent. This causes a transition to the thermal isolation regime: The potential temperature increases below a supercontinent whereas the potential temperature below oceanic domains drops such that the average temperature of the whole mantle remains constant. Transition into this regime would thus involve an increase in the suboceanic viscosity, due to local cooling, and consequently a decrease in the rate of oceanic lithosphere overturn. Transition out of this regime can involve the unleashing of flow driven by a large lateral temperature gradient, which will enhance global convective motions. Our analysis highlights that transitions between the two states, in either direction, will effect not only the mantle below a supercontinent but also the mantle below oceanic regions. This provides a larger set of predictions that can be compared to the geologic record to help determine if a hypothesized super-continental thermal effect did or did not occur on our planet.

Description: Tectonic plate motions reflect dynamical contributions from subduction processes (i.e., classical “slab-pull” forces) and lateral pressure gradients within the asthenosphere (“asthenosphere-drive” forces), which are distinct from gravity forces exerted by elevated mid-ocean ridges (i.e., classical “ridge-push” forces). Here we use scaling analysis to show that the extent to which asthenosphere-drive contributes to plate motions depends on the lateral dimension of plates and on the relative viscosities and thicknesses of the lithosphere and asthenosphere. Whereas slab-pull forces always govern the motions of plates with a lateral extent greater than the mantle depth, asthenosphere-drive forces can be relatively more important for smaller (shorter wavelength) plates, large relative asthenosphere viscosities or large asthenosphere thicknesses. Published plate velocities, tomographic images and age-binned mean shear wave velocity anomaly data allow us to estimate the relative contributions of slab-pull and asthenosphere-drive forces for the motions of the Atlantic and Pacific plates. Whereas the Pacific plate is driven largely by slab pull, the Atlantic plate is predicted to be strongly driven by basal forces related to viscous coupling to strong asthenospheric flow, consistent with recent observations related to the stress state of North America. In addition, compared to the East Pacific Rise (EPR), the relatively large lateral pressure gradient near the Mid-Atlantic Ridge (MAR) is expected to produce significantly steeper dynamic topography. Thus, the relative importance of this plate-driving force may partly explain why the flanking topography at the EPR is smoother than at the MAR. Our analysis also indicates that this plate-driving force was more significant, and heat loss less efficient, in Earth's hotter past compared with its cooler present state. This type of trend is consistent with thermal history modeling results which require less efficient heat transfer in Earth's past.

Description: We use a parameterized convection model to investigate the effects of deep water cycling on the thermal evolution of an Earth-like planet. The model incorporates two water reservoirs, a surface and an interior mantle reservoir. Exchange between the two is calculated using a mantle convection parameterization that allows for temperature- and water-dependent mantle viscosity together with internally self-consistent degassing and regassing parameterizations. The balance between degassing and regassing depends on the average spreading rate of tectonic plates, the amount of water partitioned into melt, the thickness of a mantle melt zone, and of a hydrated layer at the top of subducting plates. Degassing scales with melt zone thickness such that an early period of extensive melting would create a drier and more viscous mantle, shifting the solidus line in a direction that would reduce the melt zone thickness and the rate of mantle heat loss. Coupling a hydrated zone thickness-dependent regassing factor to the model, to mimic water delivery to the mantle via a serpentinized layer, allows for the potential of a reversing point where the overall water flow direction switches from degassing to regassing as the mantle cools. The water effect on viscosity creates a negative feedback that tends to regulate the final amount of water in the mantle so it is not strongly dependent on the initial amount of planetary water. The final amount of water in the surface reservoir is then determined by this feedback effect together with the initial water budget of the entire planet. This implies that if the initial water budget of a planet can be estimated, from planetary formation models, then the volume of surface water can be used to estimate the volume of water in the mantle of an Earth-like planet. Applying this methodology to the Earth leads to predictions for water concentration in the Earth's mantle that are in line with geochemical and petrological constraints.

Description: The Cretaceous to early Paleogene (ca. 140–50 Ma) was characterized by a greenhouse baseline climate, driven by elevated concentrations of atmospheric CO 2 . Hypotheses for the elevated CO 2 concentrations invoke an increase in volcanic CO 2 production due to higher oceanic crust production rates, higher frequency of large igneous provinces, or increases in pelagic carbonate deposition, the last leading to enhanced carbonate subduction into the mantle source regions of arc volcanoes. However, these are not the only volcanic sources of CO 2 during this time interval. We show here that ocean-continent subduction zones, manifested as a global chain of continental arc volcanoes, were as much as 200% longer in the Cretaceous and early Paleogene than in the late Paleogene to present, when a cooler climate prevailed. In particular, many of these continental arcs, unlike island arcs, intersected ancient continental platform carbonates stored on the continental upper plate. We show that the greater length of Cretaceous–Paleogene continental arcs, specifically carbonate-intersecting arcs, could have increased global production of CO 2 by at least 3.7–5.5 times that of the present day. This magmatically driven crustal decarbonation flux of CO 2 through continental arcs exceeds that delivered by Cretaceous oceanic crust production, and was sufficient to drive Cretaceous–Paleogene greenhouse conditions. Thus, carbonate-intersecting continental arc volcanoes likely played an important role in driving greenhouse conditions in the Cretaceous–Paleogene. If so, the waning of North American and Eurasian continental arcs in the Late Cretaceous to early Paleogene, followed by a fundamental shift in western Pacific subduction zones ca. 52 Ma to an island arc–dominated regime, would have been manifested as a decline in global volcanic CO 2 production, prompting a return to an icehouse baseline in the Neogene. Our analysis leads us to speculate that long-term (〉50 m.y.) greenhouse-icehouse oscillations may be linked to fluctuations between continental- and island arc–dominated states. These tectonic fluctuations may result from large-scale changes in the nature of subduction zones, changes we speculate may be tied to the assembly and dispersal of continents. Specifically, dispersal of continents may drive the leading edge of continents to override subduction zones, resulting in continental arc volcanism, whereas assembly of continents or closing of large ocean basins may be manifested as large-scale slab rollback, resulting in the development of intraoceanic volcanic arcs. We suggest that greenhouse-icehouse oscillations are a natural consequence of plate tectonics operating in the presence of continental masses, serving as a large capacitor of carbonates that can be episodically purged during global flare-ups in continental arcs. Importantly, if the global crustal carbonate reservoir has grown with time, as might be expected because platform carbonates on continents do not generally subduct, the greenhouse-driving potential of continental arcs would have been small during the Archean, but would have increased in the Neoproterozoic and Phanerozoic after a significant reservoir of crustal carbonates had formed in response to the evolution of life and the growth of continents.

Description: [1]  Two and three-dimensional simulations are used to explore the effects of continental distribution on mantle convection. In both 2D and 3D, at total surface areas 〈 50%, internal temperature is weakly sensitive to continental configuration. Mantle heat flux values show mild variations with changing configuration. In 3D, at total continental area 〉 50%, the dependence of mantle heat loss on continental configuration becomes stronger. Mantle temperature continues to increase with total continental area, but now varies by 5–7% with changing configurations. When distributed, continents can cause flow patterns to become locked. This leads to significant variations in mantle temperature below continental and oceanic regions. This differs from the expectation that supercontinents would preferentially lead to large lateral variations in mantle temperatures and suggests that insulation induced thermal anomalies could exist below continents today, if they have remained fixed relative to mantle flow (e.g. Africa).

Description: Peaks in the Precambrian preserved crustal record are associated with major volcanic, tectonic and climatic events. These include addition of juvenile continental crust, voluminous high-temperature volcanism, massive mantle depletion, widespread orogeny and mineralization, large apparent polar wander velocity spikes, and subsequent palaeomagnetic intensity increases. These events impinge on the glaciation record, atmospheric and ocean chemistry, and on the rise of oxygen. Here we summarize and assess a number of geodynamic models that have been proposed to explain the observed episodicity in the Precambrian record. We find that episodic behaviour from nonlinear slab-driven models best explains the observed record. Examples of such slab-driven systems include mantle avalanches or episodic subduction. In these cases, rapid descent of slabs into the mantle drives fast plate motions and convergence at the surface. This is accompanied by large-scale upwellings of deep hot mantle, which contribute to voluminous volcanism. Further modelling will determine the relative importance of each mechanism, and reinforce the fundamental contribution of the mantle to the evolution of Earth's surface systems.