ALBERT

Description: Past characterizations of the land–ocean continuum were constructed either from a continental perspective through an analysis of watershed river basin properties (COSCATs: COastal Segmentation and related CATchments) or from an oceanic perspective, through a regionalization of the proximal and distal continental margins (LMEs: large marine ecosystems). Here, we present a global-scale coastal segmentation, composed of three consistent levels, that includes the whole aquatic continuum with its riverine, estuarine and shelf sea components. Our work delineates comprehensive ensembles by harmonizing previous segmentations and typologies in order to retain the most important physical characteristics of both the land and shelf areas. The proposed multi-scale segmentation results in a distribution of global exorheic watersheds, estuaries and continental shelf seas among 45 major zones (MARCATS: MARgins and CATchments Segmentation) and 149 sub-units (COSCATs). Geographic and hydrologic parameters such as the surface area, volume and freshwater residence time are calculated for each coastal unit as well as different hypsometric profiles. Our analysis provides detailed insights into the distributions of coastal and continental shelf areas and how they connect with incoming riverine fluxes. The segmentation is also used to re-evaluate the global estuarine CO2 flux at the air–water interface combining global and regional average emission rates derived from local studies.

Description: The complex coastline of the Earth is over 400 000 km long and about 40% of the world's population lives within 100 km of the sea. Past characterizations of the global coastline were constructed either from a continental perspective through an analysis of watershed river basin properties (COSCAT: Coastal Segmentation and related CATchments) or from an oceanic perspective, through a regionalization of the proximal and distal continental margins (LME: Large Marine Ecosystems). Here, we present a global-scale coastal segmentation, composed of three consistent levels, that includes the whole aquatic continuum with its riverine, estuarine and shelf sea components. Our work delineates comprehensive ensembles which retain the most important physical characteristics of both the land and shelf areas. The proposed multi-scale segmentation results in a distribution of global exorheic watersheds, estuaries and continental shelf seas among 45 major zones (MARCATS: MARgins and CATchments Segmentation) and 149 sub-units (COSCATS). Geographic and hydrologic parameters such as the surface area, volume and fresh water residence time are calculated for each coastal unit as well as different hypsometric profiles. Our analysis provides detailed insights into the distributions of coastal and continental shelf areas and how they connect with incoming riverine fluxes. These results can be used for regional analyses and combined with various typologies for upscaling and biogeochemical budgets. In addition, the three levels segmentation can be used for application in Earth System analysis.

Description: This regional study quantifies the CO2 exchange at the air–water interface along the land-ocean aquatic continuum (LOAC) of the North East American coast, from streams to the shelf break. Our analysis explicitly accounts for spatial and seasonal variability in the CO2 fluxes. The yearly integrated budget reveals the gradual change in the intensity of the CO2 exchange at the air–water interface, from a strong source towards the atmosphere in streams and rivers (3.0 ± 0.5 Tg C yr−1) and estuaries (0.8 ± 0.5 Tg C yr−1) to a net sink in continental shelf waters (−1.7 ± 0.3 Tg C yr−1). Significant differences in flux intensity and their seasonal response to climate variations is observed between the North and South sections of the study area, both in rivers and coastal waters. Ice cover, snow melt and estuarine surface area are identified as important control factors of the observed spatio-temporal variability in CO2 exchange along the LOAC.

Description: The availability of dissolved silica (Si) in the ocean provides a major control on the growth of siliceous phytoplankton. Diatoms in particular account for a large proportion of oceanic primary production. The original source of the silica is rock weathering, followed by transport of dissolved and biogenic silica to the coastal zone. This model study aims at assessing the sensitivity of the global marine silicon cycle to variations in the river input of silica on timescales ranging from several centuries to millennia. We compare the performance of a box model for the marine silicon cycle to that of a global biogeochemical ocean general circulation model (HAMOCC2 and 5). Results indicate that the average global ocean response to changes in river input of silica is comparable in the models on time scales up to 150 kyrs. While the trends in export production and opal burial are the same, the box model shows a delayed response to the imposed perturbations compared to the general circulation model. Results of both models confirm the important role of the continental margins as a sink for silica at the global scale. Our work also demonstrates that the effects of changes in riverine dissolved silica on ocean biogeochemistry depend on the availability of the other nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus and iron. The model results suggest that the effects of reduced silica inputs due to river damming are particularly pronounced in the Gulf of Bengal, Gulf of Mexico and the Amazon plume where they negatively affect opal production. While general circulation models are indispensable when assessing the spatial variation in opal export production and biogenic Si burial in the ocean, this study demonstrates that box models provide a good alternative when studying the average global ocean response to perturbations of the oceanic silica cycle (especially on longer time scales).

Description: Silica, SiO2, in dissolved (DSi) and particulate (PSi) form, is both a major product of continental weathering as well as an essential nutrient in terrestrial and aquatic systems. Here we present estimates of the spatial distribution of riverine silica fluxes under natural conditions, i.e. without human influence, to ~140 segments of the global coastal zone. Focussing on the construction of the DSi budget, natural DSi concentration is multiplied with discharge of rivers for each segment for documented basins and segments. Segments with no documentation available are estimated using clustered information based mainly on considerations of local lithology, climate, and lake retention. We approximate fluxes of particulate silica in various forms (PSi) from fluxes of suspended matter, calculated from existing models. Results have been established for silica fluxes, concentrations and yields for drainage basins of the different continents, oceans basins as well as coastal segment basins. For the continental surfaces actually draining into the oceans (exorheic regions, representing 114.7 million (M) km2), 371 M t y−1 of DSi and 8835 M t y−1 of PSi are transported, corresponding to a mean concentration of 9.5 mg l−1 and 226 mg l−1, and to a mean yield of 3.3 t km−2 y−1 and 77 t km−2 y−1, respectively. DSi yields exceeding 6.6 t km−2 y−1, i.e. 〉2× the global average, represent 17.4% of the global continental ice-free exorheic area but correspond to 56.0% of DSi fluxes. Pacific catchments hold most of the hyper-active areas (〉5× global average), suggesting a close connection between tectonic activity and DSi fluxes resulting from silicate weathering. The macro-filters of regional and marginal seas intercept 33% and 46% of the total dissolved and particulate silica fluxes. The mass of DSi received from rivers per unit square area of various oceans ranges over more than one order of magnitude. When expressed per unit volume and when individual regional seas are considered this figure ranges over two to three orders of magnitude, an illustration of the heterogeneity of the land to sea connection.

Description: The first part of this paper describes C-GEM (Carbon – Generic Estuary Model), a new, one-dimensional, generic reactive-transport model for the biogeochemical dynamics of carbon and associated bio-elements (N, P, Si) in estuaries. C-GEM is computationally efficient and reduces data-requirements by using an idealized representation of the estuarine geometry to quantitatively predict the dominant features of the estuarine hydrodynamics, salt transport and biogeochemistry. A protocol for the set-up of C-GEM for an estuarine system is also described. The second part of this paper presents, as a proof of concept, the application of C-GEM to the funnel-shaped Scheldt estuary (Belgium, the Netherlands), one of the best-surveyed system in the world. Steady-state and transient simulations are performed and the performance of C-GEM is evaluated through model-data and model-model comparison, using integrated measures of the estuarine biogeochemical functioning, such as system-wide estimates of the Net Ecosystem Metabolism (NEM). A sensitivity analysis is also carried out to identify model parameters that exert the most important control on biogeochemical processes and to assess the sensitivity of the NEM to uncertainties in parameter values. The paper ends by a short discussion of current model limitations with respect to local, regional and global scale applications.

Description: Reactive transport models (RTMs) are powerful tools for disentangling the complex process interplay that drives estuarine biogeochemical dynamics, for assessing the quantitative role of estuaries in global biogeochemical cycles and for predicting their response to anthropogenic disturbances (land-use change, climate change and water management). Nevertheless, the application of RTMs for a regional or global estimation of estuarine biogeochemical transformations and fluxes is generally compromised by their high computational and data demands. Here, we describe C-GEM (Carbon-Generic Estuary Model), a new one-dimensional, computationally efficient RTM that reduces data requirements by using a generic, theoretical framework based on the direct relationship between estuarine geometry and hydrodynamics. Despite its efficiency, it provides an accurate description of estuarine hydrodynamics, salt transport and biogeochemistry on the appropriate spatio–temporal scales. We provide a detailed description of the model, as well as a protocol for its set-up. The new model is then applied to the funnel-shaped Scheldt estuary (BE/NL), one of the best-surveyed estuarine systems in the world. Its performance is evaluated through comprehensive model–data and model–model comparisons. Model results show that C-GEM captures the dominant features of the biogeochemical cycling in the Scheldt estuary. Longitudinal steady-state profiles of oxygen, ammonium, nitrate and silica are generally in good agreement with measured data. In addition, simulated, system-wide integrated reaction rates of the main pelagic biogeochemical processes are comparable with those obtained using a high-resolved, two-dimensional RTM. A comparison of fully transient simulations results with those of a two-dimensional model shows that the estuarine net ecosystem metabolism (NEM) only differs by about 10%, while system-wide estimates of individual biogeochemical processes never diverge by more than 40%. A sensitivity analysis is carried out to assess the sensitivity of biogeochemical processes to uncertainties in parameter values. Results reveal that the geometric parameters LC (estuarine convergence length) and H (water depth), as well as the rate constant of organic matter degradation (kox) exert an important influence on the biogeochemical functioning of the estuary. The sensitivity results also show that, currently, the most important hurdle towards regional- or global-scale applications arises from the lack of an objective framework for sediment and biogeochemical process parameterization. They, therefore, emphasize the need for a global compilation of biogeochemical parameter values that can help identify common trends and possible relationships between parameters and controlling factors, such as climate, catchment characteristics and anthropic pressure.