ALBERT

Description: The study of shock pressure indicators can provide important clues for understanding the cratering process, though the estimation of shock pressures in weakly shocked rocks is commonly difficult. In this study, we selected a very young and well-preserved impact structure, the Lonar crater in India. The crater, devoid of any tectonic overprint, can be assumed as pristine. We used a combination of rock magnetic and microfracture studies to estimate shock pressure in the crater rim. On the basis of present results, the magnetic fabrics are interpreted to be of magmatic origin related to the Deccan basalt emplacement. The high-coercivity component of the natural remnant magnetization in the crater rim basalt is similar to that in the unshocked basalt. The lack of any shock-related magnetic overprint on the crater rim basalt is, therefore, evident in the Lonar crater. In contrast, radial and concentric microfractures observed in basalts at the crater rim and farther away show symmetric distribution with respect to the crater. The concentric microfractures consistently overprint the radial microfractures. We infer that the radial and concentric microfractures were developed during propagation of the early compressional and the late decompressional shock wave components, respectively. The results of our rock magnetic and microfracture studies, when interpreted in light of published experimental and numerical simulation studies on the Lonar basalt, reveal that the shock pressure in the Lonar crater rim was less than 0.5 GPa but greater than 0.2 GPa. This shock pressure was high enough to produce fractures but too low to affect the magnetic fabrics. These results give new information on the relationship between shock pressure and resulting microfractures.

Description: This study investigates the effects of shock waves on magnetic and microstructural behavior of multidomain magnetite from a magnetite-bearing ore, experimentally shocked to pressures of 5, 10, 20 and 30 GPa. Changes in apparent crystallite size and lattice parameter were determined by X-ray diffraction, and grain fragmentation and defect accumulation were studied by scanning and transmission electron microscopy. Magnetic properties were characterized by low-temperature saturation isothermal remanent magnetization (SIRM), susceptibility measurements around the Verwey transition as well as by hysteresis parameters at room temperature. It is established, that the shock-induced refinement of magnetic domains from MD to SD-PSD range is a result of cooperative processes including brittle fragmentation of magnetite grains, plastic deformation with shear bands and twins as well as structural disordering in form of molten grains and amorphous nano-clusters. Up to 10 GPa, a decrease of coherent crystallite size, lattice parameter, saturation magnetization and magnetic susceptibility, and an increase in coercivity, SIRM, width of Verwey transition is mostly associated with brittle grain fragmentation. Starting from 20 GPa, a slight recovery is documented in all magnetic and non-magnetic parameters. In particular, the recovery in SIRM is correlated with an increase of the lattice constant. The recovery effect is associated with the increasing influence of shock heating/annealing at high shock pressures. The strong decrease of magnetic susceptibility at 30 GPa is interpreted as a result of strong lattice damage and distortion. Our results unravel the microstructural mechanisms behind the loss of magnetization and the modification of magnetic properties of magnetite and contribute to our understanding of shock-induced magnetic phenomena in impacted rocks on earth and in meteorites. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

Description: SUMMARY Active high-temperature (〉150 °C) geothermal areas like the Krafla caldera, NE-Iceland, often show distinct magnetic lows in aeromagnetic anomaly maps suggesting a destruction of magnetic minerals by hydrothermal activity. The main alteration processes in such an environment are low-temperature oxidation (〈350 °C, maghemitization) and fluid–rock interactions. We investigated the rock magnetic properties [natural remanent magnetization (NRM) magnetic susceptibility and their temperature and field variation] and the mineralogy, using X-ray diffraction, microscopic methods and electron microprobe analyses, of two drill cores (KH1 and KH3) from the rim of the Krafla caldera. The drill cores have distinctly lower NRM values (average 〈3 A m –1 ) compared to younger surface basalts (average 20 A m –1 ) along with a large variation in magnetic susceptibility (1.3 × 10 −7 – 4.9 × 10 −5 m 3 kg –1 ). The secondary mineral assemblage (sulphides, sphene, rutile and chlorite) indicates an alteration within the chlorite–smectite zone for both cores without depth zoning. Optical miscroscopy in combination with the Bitter technique and backscatter electron microscopy along with the thermomagnetic analyses allow distinguishing two different magnetomineralogical groups of titanomaghemite: (1) titanomaghemite with intermediate titanium concentration and probably high vacancy concentration, and (2) titanomaghemite with low titanium concentration and low vacancy concentration. The mineral assemblages, textures and magnetic properties deduced from the mentioned magnetic measurements indicate two-stage transformation mechanism: (1) Dissolution of titanium at low pH under oxidizing conditions. The ulvöspinel component of titanomagnetite and ilmenite forms rutile or sphene, and Fe 2 + migrates out of the spinel lattice forming titanomaghemite. (2) Formation of pyrite and dissolution of remaining titanomaghemite under reducing and acidic conditions. The latter mechanism produces ghost textures (all titanomaghemite is transformed and only their former grain shapes are preserved), with only paramagnetic minerals left and ferrimagnetic minerals nearly dissolved. This mechanism could explain the significant magnetization loss, which is seen in many local magnetic anomaly lows within the oceanic crust and volcanic islands like Iceland or Hawaii. The production of nanoporous textures in titanomaghemites is suggested as a mechanism for the enhancement of the magnetic susceptibility values related to the hydrothermal alteration of Krafla.

Description: Synthetic polycrystalline samples of Fe-Ti oxides (titanomagnetite, Tmtss; ilmenite-hematitess, Ilmss; pseudobrookitess, Psbss) are very sensitive to changes in the redox conditions at high temperatures, either during synthesis experiments or during thermomagnetic measurements. For instance, exposure to air for a few seconds at the end of a synthesis run at 1300°C of a Tmtss-Ilmss sample produces surficial oxidation down to a depth of some 100 μm. This oxidation zone is well visible on backscattered electron images of polished sections through the sample pellet. It is characterized by so-called trellis “oxyexsolution” textures, i.e., fine lamellae of Ilmss within the Tmtss crystals and lamellae of Psbss within the Ilmss crystals. In this oxidation zone the newly grown Ilmss lamellae and the surrounding Tmtss are more Fe rich than the original crystals. The presence of trellis textures in the crystals of both coexisting phases, Tmtss and Ilmss, show that only short-scaled elemental transport within the crystals was involved and that equilibrium was not attained. Even though the oxidation zone is very narrow, the imprint of the new Tmtss compositions is well recognizable in temperature-dependent magnetic susceptibility curves. In temperature-dependent saturation magnetization (MS-T) curves, however, the contribution of more Fe-rich Tmtss from the oxidation zone can be easily overseen. However, surficial oxidation of Tmtss does occur during MS-T measurements with a variable field translation balance, apparently in relation with insufficient Ar flowing around the sample. Further examples of rapid surficial oxidation of Fe-Ti oxide samples are also discussed.

Description: [1]  Shock experiments with pressures ranging from 3 to 30 GPa have been conducted on a mixed assemblage of hexagonal and monoclinic pyrrhotite. All samples were studied with respect to their particular shock-induced microstructures and magnetic properties at high and low temperatures. Up to 8 GPa, microstructures in shocked pyrrhotite are characterized by mechanical deformation producing a damage of the crystal structure. At pressures of 20 GPa and upward, amorphization and mechanical twinning are the dominant structural features induced by shock. Within the lower-pressure range coercivity, saturation isothermal remanent magnetization and coercivity of remanence increase with shock pressures, in agreement with more single-domain (SD)-like behavior. Simultaneously, the λ-peak of hexagonal pyrrhotite decreases and the 34 K transition of monoclinic pyrrhotite broadens and is depressed. Magnetic hardening is triggered by grain-size reduction, but also by the formation of SD within discrete multidomain grains. Planar deformation features subdivide such multidomain grains into lath-shaped domains with average sizes lying in the SD range. The planar deformation features disappear at 20 GPa and irregular, nanometer-sized “amorphous domains” occur instead. Pressure release from 30 GPa finally triggers partial melting of pyrrhotite. The sharp interfaces between molten and crystalline pyrrhotite document a rapid change of thermal conditions. Within molten pyrrhotite, quenched iron crystals occur. The presence of native iron strongly influences the magnetic properties, depending on the particular amount in the studied sample and likely affects the magnetic properties of impact lithologies on Earth and extraterrestrial material.

Description: Abstract Magnetic fabrics provide important clues for understanding impact cratering processes. However, only a few magnetic fabric studies for experimentally shocked material have been reported so far. In the framework of MEMIN (Multidisciplinary Experimental and Modeling Impact Research Network), we conducted two impact experiments on blocks of Maggia Gneiss with the foliation oriented perpendicular (A37) and parallel (A38) to the target surface. Maggia gneiss has plenty of biotite bands forming a strong rock foliation. The bulk magnetic susceptibility varies from 0.376 x 10‐3 to 1.298 x 10‐3 SI in unshocked, and from 0.443 x 10‐3 to 3.940 x 10‐3 SI in shocked gneiss. The thermomagnetic curves reveal a Verwey transition at ‐147 °C and a Curie temperature between 576° ‐ 579° C in unshocked and shocked samples, indicating nearly pure magnetite, which carries the magnetic fabrics. In A37 and A38 kinking is prominent from the point source down to a depth of 2 and 4.2 dp (projectile diameter) or 1 and 2.1 cm, respectively. Kinking, folding and fracturing changed the position of magnetite grains with respect to each other to re‐orient the magnetic fabrics. Re‐orientation of magnetic fabrics is conspicuous down to 20 dp (10 cm) in A38, where no other impact related deformation is visible. The re‐orientation of magnetic fabrics may, therefore, aid in identifying impact processes at very low pressures, starting at 0.1 GPa, when other common indicators are absent.

Description: We present evidence for an extrusion wedge in the Scandian fold-thrust belt of the central Scandinavian Caledonides (Seve nappe complex). Rb-Sr multimineral geochronology in synkinematic assemblages indicates simultaneous movements at the normal-sense roof shear zone and at the reverse-sense floor shear zone between 434 Ma and 429 Ma. A Sm-Nd age of 462 Ma from a mylonitic garnet mica schist documents prograde garnet growth and possible incipient subduction. Pressure-temperature pseudosection calculations provide evidence for eclogite facies metamorphic conditions and nearly isothermal decompression at ~670 ± 50 °C from 17.5 to 14.5 kbar in garnet-kyanite mica schists during reverse-sense shearing, and from 15 to 11 kbar in garnet mica schists during normal-sense shearing. These data and the presence of decompression-related pegmatites dated at 434 Ma and 429 Ma indicate that the Seve nappes form a large-scale extrusion wedge. This wedge extends along strike for at least 150 km and marks an early stage of ultrahigh-pressure metamorphism, exhumation, and orogenic wedge formation in this part of the Scandinavian Caledonides predating the major, post–415 Ma ultrahigh-pressure exhumation processes in southwestern Norway.

Description: Clay minerals as products of hydrothermal alteration significantly influence the hydraulic and mechanical properties of crystalline rock. Therefore, the localization and characterization of alteration zones by downhole measurements is a great challenge for the development of geothermal reservoirs. The magnetite bearing granite of the geothermal site in Soultz-sous-Forêts (France) experienced hydrothermal alteration during several tectonic events and clay mineral formation is especially observed in alteration halos around fracture zones. During the formation of clay minerals, magnetite was oxidized into hematite, which significantly reduces the magnetic susceptibility of the granite from ferrimagnetic to mostly paramagnetic values. The aim of this study was to find out if there exists a correlation between synthetic clay content logs (SCCLs) and measurements of magnetic susceptibility on cuttings in the granite in order to characterize their alteration mineralogy. Such a correlation has been proven for core samples of the EPS1 reference well. SCCLs were created from gamma ray and fracture density logs using a neural network. These logs can localize altered fracture zones in the GPK1-4 wells, where no core material is available. Mass susceptibility from 261 cutting samples of the wells GPK1–GPK4 was compared with the neural network derived synthetic logs. We applied a combination of temperature dependent magnetic susceptibility measurements with optical and electron microscopy, and energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy to discriminate different stages of alteration. We found, that also in the granite cuttings an increasing alteration grade is characterized by an advancing oxidation of magnetite into hematite and a reduction of magnetic susceptibility. A challenge to face for the interpretation of magnetic susceptibility data from cuttings material is that extreme alteration grades can also display increased susceptibilities due to the formation of secondary magnetite. Low magnetic susceptibility can also be attributed to primary low magnetite content, if the granite facies changes. In order to interpret magnetic susceptibility from cuttings, contaminations with iron from wear debris of the drilling tools must be eliminated. Provided that the magnetic mineralogy of the granite is known in detail, this method in combination with petrographic investigations is suited to indicate and characterize hydrothermal alteration and the appearance of clay.

Description: Analysis of the time series of coordinates is extremely important in geodynamic research. Indeed, the correct interpretation of coordinate changes may facilitate an understanding of the diverse geophysical processes taking place in the earth’s crust. At present, when rigorously processing global navigation satellite system (GNSS) observations, the influence of deformations in the surface of the earth’s crust is not considered. This article presents signal modelling for the influence on the analysis of noise occurring in the time series of GNSS station coordinates. The modelling of coordinate time series was undertaken using the classic least-squares estimation (LSE) method and the inverse continuous wavelet transform (CWT). In order to determine the type of noise character, the coefficient spectral index was used. Analyses have demonstrated that the nature of noise in measurement data does not depend on the signal estimation method. The differences between classic modelling (LSE) of the time series with annual and semiannual oscillation and signal reconstruction are very small ( Δ κ = 0.0 ÷−0.2).

Description: [1]  This study presents low-temperature SIRM, susceptibility and hysteresis data of magnetite that have been combined with mineralogic observations. It aims to unravel the origin of two different Verwey transition temperatures observed in different rocks from drill cores of the Chesapeake Bay impact structure (CBIS). We distinguish three types of magnetite in these rocks. (1) “ primary magnetite ” (mt prim) in granites from allochthonous and autochthonous crystalline basement. It has average grain sizes up to some hundreds µm, shows typical multidomain magnetic behaviour and a regular Verwey transition at ~120 K. (2) “Shocked magnetite” occurs in fragments of crystalline rocks and as single grains in the suevite and impact breccia. These rocks show two Verwey transitions - a regular transition at ~120 and a “low–temperature Verwey transition” (LT V ) at around 95 K. The shocked grains are strongly deformed and partially molten. These grains have been strongly alterated during a post-impact phase. The LT V originates from an oxidized magnetite fraction with small grain sizes (some tens of µm). Compared to the larger grain size fraction (some hundreds of µm), the high surface/volume ratio of the small grains allows a more pervasive development of the resulting non-stoichiometry that finally controls T V . (3) “Secondary” magnetite, which formed after the impact from hydrothermal fluids, also shows two Verwey transitions. Besides the regular one, an additional LT V appears between 90 and 100 K. “Secondary” magnetite forms clusters consisting of numerous needle-shaped magnetite crystals, which range from few nm to about 10 µm. This grain size variation is in agreement with hysteresis properties and first-order reversal curves, which indicate superparamagnetic to multidomain magnetic behaviour. The LT V in this population is also the of result of a thin oxidized surface layers that make up an effectual percentage of the bulk volume of the small grains. The Verwey transition is often strongly broadened because this type of magnetite holds a broad range of grain sizes with varying ratios between oxidized surface and bulk volume. This study shows that especially the Verwey transition of small magnetite grains reacts very sensitive to surface oxidation. As the Verwey transition temperature of small grains is very sensitive to post-impact alteration it cannot be used as a reliable shock pressure indicator.