ALBERT

Description: The Lagrangian analysis of sets of particles advected with the flow fields of ocean models is used to study connectivity, that is, exchange pathways, time scales, and volume transports, between distinct oceanic regions. One important factor influencing the dispersion of fluid particles and, hence, connectivity is the Lagrangian eddy diffusivity, which quantifies the influence of turbulent processes on the rate of particle dispersal. Because of spatial and temporal discretization, turbulence is not fully resolved in modeled velocities, and the concept of eddy diffusivity is used to parameterize the impact of unresolved processes. However, the relations between observation- and model-based Lagrangian eddy diffusivity estimates, as well as eddy parameterizations, are not clear. This study presents an analysis of the spatially variable near-surface lateral eddy diffusivity estimates obtained from Lagrangian trajectories simulated with 5-day mean velocities from an eddy-resolving ocean model (INALT01) for the Agulhas system. INALT01 features diffusive regimes for dynamically different regions, some of which exhibit strong suppression of eddy mixing by mean flow, and it is consistent with the pattern and magnitude of drifter-based eddy diffusivity estimates. Using monthly mean velocities decreases the estimated diffusivities less than eddy kinetic energy, supporting the idea that large and persistent eddy features dominate eddy diffusivities. For a noneddying ocean model (ORCA05), Lagrangian eddy diffusivities are greatly reduced, particularly when the Gent and McWilliams parameterization of mesoscale eddies is employed.

Description: We analyze the contribution of the Agulhas Current on the central water masses of the Benguela upwelling system (BUS) over the last decades in a high‐resolution ocean simulation driven by atmospheric reanalysis. The BUS is an Eastern Boundary Upwelling System where upwelling of cold nutrient‐rich water favors biomass growth. The two distinct subregions, North and South Benguela, differ in nutrient and oxygen properties of the upwelling water mass. Our analysis indicates that the contribution of Agulhas water to the upwelling is very strong in both subregions. Although the water masses feeding the upwelling have a common origin, their pathways are distinct in both regions. Whereas for the central waters of South Benguela the path is rather direct from where it is formed, the central waters of North Benguela takes a longer route through the equatorial current system. Not only the travel time from the Agulhas Current to the BUS is longer but also the central water mass is twice as old for the northern part when compared to the southern. Our analysis traces the pathways, history, and origin of the central water masses feeding upwelling in the BUS and emphasizes the direct impact of the Agulhas Current on the upwelling region. The variability of that link between the Indian Ocean and the South Atlantic is likely to change the nutrient and oxygen content, as well as temperature and salinity of the water masses in the upwelling region.

Description: The northward flow of the upper limb of the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC) is fed by waters entering the South Atlantic from the Indian Ocean mainly via the Agulhas Current (AC) system and by waters entering from the Pacific through Drake Passage (DP), commonly referred to as the warm and cold water routes, respectively. However, there is no final consensus on the relative importance of these two routes for the upper limb’s volume transport and thermohaline properties. In this study we revisited the AC and DP contributions by performing Lagrangian analyzes between the two source regions and the North Brazil Current (NBC) at 6° S in a realistically forced high-resolution (1/20°) ocean model. Our results agree with the prevailing conception that the AC contribution is the major source for the upper limb transport of the AMOC. However, they also suggest a non-negligible DP contribution of at least 40 %, which is substantially higher than estimates from previous Lagrangian studies with coarser resolution models, but now better matches estimates from Lagrangian observations. Moreover, idealized analyzes of decadal changes in the DP and AC contributions indicate that the ongoing increase in Agulhas leakage indeed may have evoked an increase in the AC contribution to the upper limb of the AMOC while the DP contribution decreased. In terms of thermohaline properties, our study highlights that the AC and DP contributions cannot be unambiguously distinguished by their temperature, as the commonly adopted terminology may imply, but rather by their salinity when entering the South Atlantic. During their transit towards the NBC the bulk of DP waters experiences a net density loss through a net warming, whereas the bulk of AC waters experiences a slight net density gain through a net increase in salinity. Notably, these density changes are nearly completely captured by those Lagrangian particle trajectories that reach the surface mixed layer at least once during their transit, which amount to 66 % and 49 % for DP and AC waters, respectively. This implies that more than half of the water masses supplying the upper limb of the AMOC are actually formed within the South Atlantic, and do not get their characteristic properties in the Pacific and Indian Oceans.

Description: Highlights: • Lagrangian ocean analysis is a powerful way to analyse the output of ocean circulation models • We present a review of the Kinematic framework, available tools, and applications of Lagrangian ocean analysis • While there are unresolved questions, the framework is robust enough to be used widely in ocean modelling Abstract: Lagrangian analysis is a powerful way to analyse the output of ocean circulation models and other ocean velocity data such as from altimetry. In the Lagrangian approach, large sets of virtual particles are integrated within the three-dimensional, time-evolving velocity fields. Over several decades, a variety of tools and methods for this purpose have emerged. Here, we review the state of the art in the field of Lagrangian analysis of ocean velocity data, starting from a fundamental kinematic framework and with a focus on large-scale open ocean applications. Beyond the use of explicit velocity fields, we consider the influence of unresolved physics and dynamics on particle trajectories. We comprehensively list and discuss the tools currently available for tracking virtual particles. We then showcase some of the innovative applications of trajectory data, and conclude with some open questions and an outlook. The overall goal of this review paper is to reconcile some of the different techniques and methods in Lagrangian ocean analysis, while recognising the rich diversity of codes that have and continue to emerge, and the challenges of the coming age of petascale computing.

Description: To model tracer spreading in the Ocean, Lagrangian simulations in an offline framework are a practical and efficient alternative to solving the advective-diffusive tracer equations online. Differences in both approaches raise the question whether both methods are comparable. Lagrangian simulations usually use model output averaged in time, and trajectories are not subject to parameterized subgrid diffusion which is included in the advection-diffusion equations of ocean models. Previous studies focused on diffusivity estimates in idealized models but could show that both methods yield similar results as long as the deformations scale dynamics are resolved and a sufficient amount of floats is used. This study compares the spreading of an Eulerian tracer simulated online and a cloud of Lagrangian particles simulated offline with velocities from the same model. We use a global, eddy-resolving ocean model featuring 1/20° horizontal resolution in the Agulhas region around South Africa. Tracer and particles were released at one time step in the Cape Basin and below the mixed layer at a depth of 160 m and integrated for 3 years. Large-scale diagnostics, like mean pathways of floats and tracer, are almost identical and 1D-horizontal distributions show no signigicant differences. Differences in vertical distributions, seen in a reduced vertical spreading and downward displacement of particles, are due to the combined effect of unresolved sub-daily variability of the vertical velocities and the spatial variation of vertical diffusivity. This, in turn, has a small impact on the horizontal spreading behavior. The estimates of eddy diffusivity from particles and tracer yield comparable results of about 4048 m^2/s in the Cape Basin.

Description: The Lagrangian analysis of sets of particles advected with the flow fields of ocean models is used to study connectivity, that is, exchange pathways, time scales, and volume transports, between distinct oceanic regions. One important factor influencing the dispersion of fluid particles and, hence, connectivity is the Lagrangian eddy diffusivity, which quantifies the influence of turbulent processes on the rate of particle dispersal. Because of spatial and temporal discretization, turbulence is not fully resolved in modeled velocities, and the concept of eddy diffusivity is used to parameterize the impact of unresolved processes. However, the relations between observation- and model-based Lagrangian eddy diffusivity estimates, as well as eddy parameterizations, are not clear. This study presents an analysis of the spatially variable near-surface lateral eddy diffusivity estimates obtained from Lagrangian trajectories simulated with 5-day mean velocities from an eddy-resolving ocean model (INALT01) for the Agulhas system. INALT01 features diffusive regimes for dynamically different regions, some of which exhibit strong suppression of eddy mixing by mean flow, and it is consistent with the pattern and magnitude of drifter-based eddy diffusivity estimates. Using monthly mean velocities decreases the estimated diffusivities less than eddy kinetic energy, supporting the idea that large and persistent eddy features dominate eddy diffusivities. For a noneddying ocean model (ORCA05), Lagrangian eddy diffusivities are greatly reduced, particularly when the Gent and McWilliams parameterization of mesoscale eddies is employed.

Description: We analyze the contribution of the Agulhas Current on the central water masses of the Benguela upwelling system (BUS) over the last decades in a high-resolution ocean simulation driven by atmospheric reanalysis. The BUS is an Eastern Boundary Upwelling System where upwelling of cold nutrient-rich water favors biomass growth. The two distinct subregions, North and South Benguela, differ in nutrient and oxygen properties of the upwelling water mass. Our analysis indicates that the contribution of Agulhas water to the upwelling is very strong in both subregions. Although the water masses feeding the upwelling have a common origin, their pathways are distinct in both regions. Whereas for the central waters of South Benguela the path is rather direct from where it is formed, the central waters of North Benguela takes a longer route through the equatorial current system. Not only the travel time from the Agulhas Current to the BUS is longer but also the central water mass is twice as old for the northern part when compared to the southern. Our analysis traces the pathways, history, and origin of the central water masses feeding upwelling in the BUS and emphasizes the direct impact of the Agulhas Current on the upwelling region. The variability of that link between the Indian Ocean and the South Atlantic is likely to change the nutrient and oxygen content, as well as temperature and salinity of the water masses in the upwelling region.

Description: Lagrangian connectivity studies with ocean models comprise the analysis of sets of virtual fluid particle trajectories to identify connecting pathways, as well as associated timescales and transports between distinct oceanic regions. They constitute a powerful tool in physical oceanography and a unique means to coherently study seawater pathways associated with the global overturning circulation (GOC). However, there are several open questions related to the (partially unresolved) impact of small-scale flow variability on large-scale Lagrangian connectivity measures. This doctoral dissertation addresses different aspects of the question how high-resolution ocean models can help improving our understanding of the spreading of water masses associated with the global overturning circulation, by: (i) reviewing the theoretical background of Lagrangian connectivity studies with ocean models, thereby highlighting the importance to distinguish Lagrangian analyzes of simulated purely advective volume transport trajectories from Lagrangian modeling approaches to estimate advective-diffusive tracer trajectories; (ii) investigating Lagrangian volume transport pathways and along-track tracer changes of the GOC’s upper limb in the South Atlantic (study 1) and Indian Ocean (study 2) with high-resolution models; and (iii) assessing the performance of near-surface particle dispersal simulations in the extended Agulhas Current system by means of lateral eddy diffusivity estimates (study 3). The major aim of study 1 was to revisit the relative importance of the different sources for the GOC’s upper limb in the South Atlantic, that are, waters entering from the Indian Ocean through the Agulhas Current system versus waters entering from the Pacific through Drake Passage. To do so, backward trajectory calculations from the North Brazil Current have been employed. They revealed a substantially higher volumetric contribution of waters originating at Drake Passage than estimated by previous Lagrangian studies with coarser resolution models. Moreover, the majority of waters with Drake Passage and Agulhas origin experiences substantial water property modifications along their transit through the South Atlantic. A first analysis of temporal changes in the ratio of the two contributions further indicates that an ongoing increase in Agulhas leakage may evoke an increase in the Agulhas contribution to the upper limb of the Atlantic part of the GOC, while the Drake Passage contribution decreases. In study 2 the Agulhas Current contribution to the GOC’s upper limb was further decomposed into its different sources from the Indian Ocean. It constitutes the first coherent Lagrangian analysis of large-scale connectivity associated with the upper limb return flow from the Pacific via the Indian Ocean into the Atlantic. The analysis highlights the dominant contribution of surface-bound Indonesian Throughflow waters that salinify and cool during their transit through the South Atlantic. Additionally, it reports a relative high contribution of intermediate water with origin South of Australia, which largely maintain their properties during transit. Study 3 presents an analysis of near-surface lateral eddy diffusivity estimates obtained from Lagrangian trajectories simulated with a high resolution model for the greater Agulhas system. It further includes the first comparison of eddy diffusivity estimates from simulated Lagrangian trajectories and observed drifter trajectories for that region. Notably, eddy diffusivity estimates from the high-resolution model are consistent with the spatial pattern and magnitude of drifter-based eddy diffusivity estimates — without the need for an additional diffusion parametrization in the trajectory calculation. Overall, these studies contributed to a revised picture of large-scale connectivity associated with the GOC and yielded new insights regarding the suitability of Lagrangian analyzes for assessing large-scale spreading of water masses. In particular, the presented studies highlight the benefits of Lagrangian analyzes to investigate the simulated flow field of ocean models in terms of volume transport pathways and timescales, as well as net water mass transformations. At the same time they indicate that Lagrangian analyzes are of limited use for assessing the pathways and timescales with that upper ocean temperature as well as salinity anomalies may be transmitted through the Indian and South Atlantic oceans, if the virtual fluid particles experience non-negligible along-track water property modifications.

Description: The Lagrangian analysis of sets of particles advected with the flow fields of ocean models are used to study connectivity, i.e. exchange pathways, timescales and volume transports, between distinct oceanic regions. One important factor influencing the dispersion of fluid particles and hence connectivity is the Lagrangian eddy diffusivity, which quantifies the influence of turbulent processes on the rate of particle dispersal. Due to spatial and temporal discretization, turbulence is not fully resolved in modelled velocities, and the concept of eddy diffusivity is used to parametrize the impact of unresolved processes. However, the relations between observational- and model-based Lagrangian eddy diffusivity estimates as well as eddy parameterizations are not clear. This study presents an analysis of the spatially variable near-surface lateral eddy diffusivity estimates obtained from Lagrangian trajectories simulated with 5-day mean velocities from an eddy-resolving ocean model (INALT01) for the Agulhas system. INALT01 features diffusive regimes for dynamically different regions, some of which exhibit strong suppression of eddy mixing by mean flow, and is consistent with the pattern and magnitude of drifter-based eddy diffusivity estimates. Using monthly-mean velocities decreases the estimated diffusivities less than eddy kinetic energy, supporting the idea that large and persistent eddy features dominate eddy diffusivities. For a non-eddying ocean model (ORCA05), Lagrangian eddy diffusivities are greatly reduced, in particular when the Gent and McWilliams parameterization of mesoscale eddies is employed.