ALBERT

Note: Contents: Organizers. - Lecturers. - Seminar Speakers. - Participants. - Préface (French). - Preface (English). - MAIN COURSES. - Course 1. The Observed Climate of the 20th Century / by E.M. Rasmusson, M. Chelliah and C.F. Ropelewski. - 1. Climatology: From statistics to science. - 1.1. The evolution of climate science. - 1.2. Characteristics and limitations of the instrumental data bases. - 1.3. Interannual to interdecadal variability. - 1.4. Modern climate diagnostics. - 2. The atmospheric general circulation. - 2.1. From Hadley to the mid-20th century: Theory underconstrained by Observations. - 2.2. Post-World War II: Resolving the controversies. - 2.3. Quantifying the balance requirements. - 2.3.1. Angular momentum balance. - 2.3.2. Atmospheric energy cycle. - 2.3.3. Planetary heat balance. - 2.3.4. Hydrologic cycle. - 3. The annual cycle. - 3.1. Basic controls. - 3.2. Focus on the tropics. - 3.3. A monsoon system perspective. - 3.4. Focus on the extratropics. - 4. Interannual variability. - 4. 1. Atmospheric teleconnections. - 4.2. The ENSO phenomenon: Early investigations. - 4.3. ENSO cycle time series. - 4.4. ENSO warm episode evolution. - 4.5. ENSO global response. - 4.5.1. Tropical anomalies. - 4.5.2. Extratropical anomalies. - 5. Decadal/interdecadal variability. - 5.1. Focus on the tropical oceans. - 5.1.1. Pacific sector. - 5.1.2. Atlantic sector. - 5.2. Focus on the extratropics. - 5.2.1. Northem Hemisphere wintertime temperatures: relattonship to the SO and the NAO. - 5.2.2. North Atlantic and North Pacific. - 5.3. Continental precipitation variability. - 5.3.1 . Sahel rainfall. - 5.3.2. North American drought. - 5.3.3. Indian rainfall. - 5.4. Concluding remarks. - References. - Course 2. Numerical Modelling of the Earth's Climate / by L. Bengtsson. - 1. A strategic approach to climate modelling. - 1.1. Introduction. - 1.2. Dynamics of climate. - 1.2.1. Phillips' experiment. - 1.2.2. The key scientific issues in 1955. - 1.3. Climate modelling for different time-scales. - 2. Climate modelling. - 2.1. lntroduction. - 2.2. The climate model as a mathematical system. - 2.3. Overall design of an atmospheric climate model. - 2.4. Numerical solution. - 2.5. Physical parameterization. - 2.6. Climate model performance. - 3. An atmospheric model for climate simulation and prediction studies. - 3.1. lntroduction. - 3.2. Horizontal diffusion. - 3.3. Surface fluxes and vertical diffusion. - 3.4. Land surface processes. - 3.5. Gravity wave drag. - 3.6. Cumulus convection. - 3.6.1. Adjustment closure. - 3. 7. Stratiform clouds. - 3.8. Radiation. - 3.8.1. Longwave radiation. - 3.8.2. Shortwave radiation. - 3.8.3. Shortwave cloud optical properties. - 3.8.4. Longwave cloud optical properties. - 3.8.5. Effective radii of cloud droplets and icc crystals. - 3.8.6. Surface albedo. - 3.8.7. Solar zenith angle. - 3.9. Model validation. - 3.9.1. Radiation and clouds. - 3.9.2. The hydrological cycle. - 3.9.3. The large scale extra-tropical circulation. - 4. Climate response to greenhouse gas forcing. - 4.1. Introduction. - 4.2. Climate feedback processes. - 4.3. The Wonderland climate model. - 4.4. Forcing experiments with the Wonderland model. - 4.4.1. Response to 2 X CO2 and 2% solar forcing. - 4.4.2. Response to the horizontal and vertical distribution of the forcing. - 4.5. Forcing experiments with more realistic climate models. - 5. Climate change prediction. - 5 .1. Introduction. - 5.2. Mechanisms behind climate change. - 5.2.1. How can climate change?. - 5.2.2. Changes in the solar radiation. - 5.2.3. Changes in the greenhouse gases. - 5.2.4. Changes in atrnospheric aerosols. - 5.2.5. Internal, natural variations. - 5.3. Coupled models. - 5.4. Coupled model experiments. - 5.4.1. Transient greenhouse gas experiment. - 5.4.2. Changes in the energy cycle. - 5.4.3. The hydrological cycle. - 5.4.4. Temperature changes. - References. - Course 3. Ocean Modelling and the Role of the Ocean in the Climate System / by P. Delecluse and G. Madec. - 1. Physical properties of the ocean. - 1.1. General structure. - 1.2. Why does the ocean move?. - 1.2.1. Radiative forcing. - 1.2.2. Momentum flux. - 1.2.3. Turbulent fluxes. - 1.2.4. Freshwater flux. - 1.3. Mean vertical structure. - 1.3.1. Seasonal cycle of the mixed layer. - 1.3.2. Midlatitude thermocline ventilation. - 1.3.3. Equatorial thermocline. - 1.3.4. Deep convection and sea ice. - 1.4. Turbulence of the ocean. - 2. Equations of motion. - 2.1. The physical equations. - 2.1.1. Basic assumptions (refer to Pedlosky, 1987). - 2.1.2. The Primitive Equations. - 2.1.3. The boundary conditions. - 2.2. Horizontal pressure gradient formulation. - 2.2.1. Pressure formulation. - 2.2.2. Diagnosing the surface pressure gradient. - 2.2.3. Boundary conditions. - 3. Modelling approach. - 3.1. System of coordinates. - 3.2. Model equations. - 3.3. Vertical system of coordinates. - 3.4. Meridian convergence at the pole. - 3.5. Discretization in space. - 3.5.1. Arrangement of variables for the C grid. - 3.5.2. Discrete operators. - 3.5.3. Conservation properties for the dynamics. - 3.5.4. Conservation properties for the thermodynamics. - 3.6. Discretization in time. - 3.7. Robust diagnostic modelling. - 3.8. Aceeleration of convergence. - 3.9. Surface boundary conditions. - 3.10. Subgrid scale parameterisations. - 3.10. 1. Vertical mixing. - 3.10.2. Convection. - 3.10.3. Lateral mixing. - 4. The global coupled system. - 4.1. Ocean-only models. - 4.1.1. Space or time?. - 4.1.2. Oceanic observations. - 4.1.3. Atmospheric forcing. - 4.1.4. Sensitivity to parameterisation. - 4.2. Coupled models. - 4.2.1. General description of the problem. - 4.2.2. Illustration of drift. - 4.2.3. Flux correction. - 4.2.4. Sensitivity. - 5. The equatorial coupled system. - 5.1. Oceanic equatorial waves. - 5.1.1. Vertical eigenvectors. - 5.1.2. Meridional normal modes. - 5.1.3. Inertia-gravity and Rossby waves. - 5.1.4. Mixed Rossby-gravity wave. - 5.1.5. Equatorial Kelvin wave. - 5.2. Equatorial waves and EI Niiio. - 5.3. Response of forced simulations. - 5.4. Coupled models. - 5.5. Prediction. - 5.6. Some new features to study EI Nino. - 5.6.1. Meridional coupling. - 5.6.2. Barrier layer and freshwater flux. - 6. Conclusion. - References. - Course 4. Past Climatic Changes / by J.-C. Duplessy. - 1. Paleoclimatic and Paleoceanographic tools. - 1.1. Introduction. - 1.2. Transfer functions. - 1.2.1. The Imbrie and Kipp (I&K) technique. - 1.2.2. The Modem Analog Technique (MAT). - 1.2.3. Improving or validating transfer functions. - 1.3. Stable isotope ratio variations. - 1.3.1. Oxygen isotope fractionation during the water cycle. - 1.3.2. Oxygen isotope fractionation during carbonate precipitation. - 1.3.3. Isotope fractionation during the carbon cycle. - 1.4. Dating. - 1.4.1. Radiocarbon. - 1.4.2. Uranium series disequilibria. - 1.4.3. Longer time scales. - 2. The climatic record of the Plio-Pleistocene and the evidence for the Astronomical Theory of paleoclimates. - 2.1. Historical introduction. - 2.2. The Astronomical Theory of glaciations. - 2.3. Extension of the climatic record over the last 6 million years. - 2.4. The last climatic cycle. - 2.5. The last glacial maximum. - 2.6. The last climatic optimum. - 3. Rapid variations within the climate system. - 3.1. Introduction. - 3.2. Evidence of rapid climatic change during the deglaciation. - 3.3. Evidence of rapid climatic change during the glaciation. - 3.4. Mechanisms of rapid climatic change under glacial conditions. - 3.5. A case for the Younger Dryas. - 3.6. Evidence of rapid climatic change during the Eemian. - 3.7. Evidence of rapid climatic change during the Holocene. - 3.8. Modeling of abrupt climatic changes and implications for future climates. - References. - Course 5. Paleomyths I Have Known / by T. J. Crowley. - 1. lntroduction. - 2. General Features of past climate change. - 3. Some significant misconceptions about past climate change. - 4. Discussion of the "paleo-paradigms". - 4.1. "Th