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  • 1
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Why do males emerge before females? (1977)
    Springer
    Oecologia 31 (1977), S. 153-158 
    Details
    ISSN: 1432-1939
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Summary In butterflies and many other insects there is a general tendency for males to emerge before females. This is known as protandry. In this paper we advance the hypothesis that protandry is a reproductive strategy of males, resulting from competition for mates, and should primarily occur in species maintaining female monogamy. Our hypothesis is corroborated by applying a mathematical treatment to a theoretical population with seven defined properties, all of which are argued to be reasonable assumptions for natural populations.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00346917
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  • 2
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Why do males emerge before females? protandry as a mating strategy in male and female butterflies (1982)
    Springer
    Oecologia 52 (1982), S. 164-166 
    Details
    ISSN: 1432-1939
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Summary The reproductive strategy of butterfly males can be defined as being to maximize the number of females mated. We have earlier shown that, if the eclosion period of females is regarded as given, males should emerge before females to achieve maximal reproductive success. However, females may also be considered to have a reproductive strategy with respect to the issue “when to emerge”. In this paper we assume that females are selected to minimize the time spent unmated (to minimize prereproductive death), and analyze when females should optimally emerge in relation to males to achieve this end. We show that there is no conflict between the sexes with respect to the timing of eclosion when the length of the eclosion period is approximately equal for males and females. Thus, protandry should be considered a reproductive strategy of both males and females.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00363830
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  • 3
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Mating opportunity and the evolution of sex-specific mortality rates in a butterfly (2000)
    Springer
    Oecologia 122 (2000), S. 36-43 
    Details
    ISSN: 1432-1939
    Keywords: Key words Life history theory ; Longevity ; Ageing ; Mortality rate ; Lepidoptera
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Abstract  Life history theory predicts that organisms should only invest resources into intrinsic components of life span to the degree that it pays off in terms of reproductive success. Here, we investigate if the temporal distribution of mating opportunities may have influenced the evolution of intrinsic mortality rates in the butterfly Pararge aegeria (Satyrinae). In this species, females mate only once and the frequency of male mating opportunities depends on the temporal emergence pattern of virgin females. As expected, in a population from Madeira where females emerge continuously throughout the year, there was no sex difference in adult life span, while in a Swedish population with synchronised female emergence, males had significantly shorter life spans compared to females. A logistic mortality model provided the best fit to the observed change in age-specific mortality and all categories reached an asymptotic mortality rate of a similar magnitude. However, the Swedish males reached this mortality plateau more rapidly than the other categories. External mortality, due to water and food limitation, affected the pattern of sex-specific mortality but males from Sweden still had higher rates of mortality compared to all other categories. We argue that selection on male longevity is likely to be weaker in Sweden because under synchronised emergence, all females emerge and mate within a short period of time, after which male reproductive value will quickly approach zero. On Madeira, however, male reproductive value decrease more slowly with age since the probability of finding a receptive female is constant over the year.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/PL00008833
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  • 4
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Egg-laying patterns in butterflies in relation to their phenology and the visual apparency and abundance of their host plants (1984)
    Springer
    Oecologia 63 (1984), S. 23-29 
    Details
    ISSN: 1432-1939
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Summary 1. The egg-laying behaviour in the wild of 51 butterflies in Sweden is studied: three different patterns emerge. Firstly, although the majority of butterflies deposit their eggs on the plants on which their larvae later feed, butterflies that overwinter in the egg stage and use herbaceous host plants tend to avoid laying their egges on host plants 2. Secondly, butterflies which use host plants that are superabundant, notably the grass-feeding satyrids, also tend not to deposit their eggs on the leaves on which the larvae later feed. Among the Swedish satyrids, two of the three species which do deposit their eggs on the larval hosts overwinter in the pupal stage, thus necessitating rapid larval development. 3. Thirdly, butterflies which use visually apparent host plants seem to find their host plants without having to alight on non-hosts, whereas butterflies that use hosts that are visually non-apparent frequently alight on non-host plants during the oviposition search before they find the appropriate plants. 4. The possible adaptive significance of these egg-laying patterns is discussed.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00379780
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  • 5
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Adaptive variation in growth rate: life history costs and consequences in the speckled wood butterfly,Pararge aegeria (1994)
    Springer
    Oecologia 99 (1994), S. 281-289 
    Details
    ISSN: 1432-1939
    Keywords: Physiological trade-off ; Size and age at maturity ; Starvation ; Longevity ; Satyrinae
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Abstract An important assumption made in most lifehistory theory is that there is a trade-off between age and size at reproduction. This trade-off may, however, disappear if growth rate varies adaptively. The fact that individuals do not always grow at the maximum rate can only be understood if high growth rates carry a cost. This study investigates the presence and nature of such costs inPararge aegeria. Five females from two populations with known differences in life history (south Sweden and Maderia) were allowed to oviposit in the laboratory and their offspring were reared in environmental chambers under conditions leading to direct development. We measured several aspects of life history, including development times, pupal and adult weights, growth rate, female fecundity, longevity and larval starvation endurance. In both populations there seemed to be genetic variation in growth rate. There was no evidence for a trade-off between age and size at pupation. As predicted, larvae with high growth rates also lost weight at a relatively higher rate during starvation. High weight-loss rates were furthermore associated with a lower probability of surviving when food became available again. This is apparently the first physiological trade-off with growth rate that has been experimentally demonstrated. In both populations there were significant differences in growth rate between the sexes, but the populations differed in which sex was growing at the highest rate. In Sweden males had higher growth rates than females, whereas the reverse was true for Madeira. These patterns most likely reflect differences in selection for protandry, in turn caused by differences in seasonality between Sweden and Madeira. Together with the finding that males had shorter average longevity than females in the Swedish, but not in the Maderiran, population, this indicates that a lower adult quality also may be a cost of high growth rate. We argue that for the understanding of life history variation it is necessary to consider not only the two dimensions of age and size, but also to take into full account the triangular nature of the relationship between size, time and growth rate.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00627740
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  • 6
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    The Effect of Repeated Matings on Sperm Numbers in Successive Ejaculates of the Cabbage White Butterfly Pieris rapae (Lepidoptera: Pieridae) (1998)
    Springer
    Journal of insect behavior 11 (1998), S. 559-570 
    Details
    ISSN: 1572-8889
    Keywords: spermatophores ; eupyrene sperm ; apyrene sperm ; multiple matings
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Abstract The effect of repeated matings on sperm numbers in successive ejaculates of the cabbage white butterfly, Pieris rapae, was examined. First ejaculates were larger than successive ones, which did not differ among themselves. Moreover, the cumulative mass of previous spermatophores was not correlated with that of the last mating. The number of eupyrene sperm bundles in the ejaculate did not differ between first and successive matings. Multiplying by 256, a male transfers about 11,000 eupyrene sperm at every mating. First ejaculates contained about 46,000 apyrene sperm, whereas successive ejaculates contained higher numbers. The sperm density increased after the first mating, though the spermatophore mass decreased. The significance of change in sperm quantity with mating number is discussed from the viewpoint of male investment.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1022319514424
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  • 7
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    The effect of ejaculate mass on female reproductive output in the european swallowtail butterfly,Papilio machaon (L.) (Lepidoptera: Papilionidae) (1991)
    Springer
    Journal of insect behavior 4 (1991), S. 33-41 
    Details
    ISSN: 1572-8889
    Keywords: fecundity ; fertility ; multiple matings ; spermatophores ; Papilio machaon
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Abstract Previously, we showed that virgin males of Papilio machaondeliver ejaculates that are twice as big as any ejaculates they transfer at later matings. Here, we investigate the consequences of these two size classes of ejaculates on female reproductive output and demonstrate that females that received one small ejaculate laid as many eggs, fertilized the same proportion of eggs, and lived as long as those that had received one big ejaculate. However, females that received big ejaculates laid heavier eggs, but only between the twelfth and the fifteenth days of egg-laying. We conclude that male-derived nutrients appear to have a limited effect on female reproductive output in P. machaonand that the large size of ejaculates delivered by male butterflies are determined primarily by selection on males to produce longer refractory periods in females.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01092549
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  • 8
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Female mate choice and mating costs in the polyandrous butterflyPieris napi (Lepidoptera: Pieridae) (1994)
    Springer
    Journal of insect behavior 8 (1994), S. 355-363 
    Details
    ISSN: 1572-8889
    Keywords: butterfly ; mating behavior ; polyandry ; ejaculate ; mating costs ; female choice
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Abstract Males of the green-veined white butterfly (Pieris napi L.) transfer large ejaculates that represent on average 15% of their body mass when mating for a first time. Shortly after mating a male is able to transfer only a small ejaculate when mating a second time. Male ejaculate production plays a crucial role in the mating system ofP. napi because females use male-derived nutrients for egg production and somatic maintenance. Here we study how timing of female rematings and copulation duration are influenced by the mating history of their mates and, also, study if females exert mate choice to minimize their mating costs. Mating with a recently mated male increased female mating costs by increasing time in copula and mating frequency. Virgin females that mated with virgin males remated after an average of 6 days, whereas virgin females that mated with recently mated males remated after an average of 2 days. Moreover, copulations involving recently mated males lasted on average almost 7 h, whereas copulations involving virgin males lasted on average 2 h. Recently mated males were eager to remate, in spite of the fact that the size of the ejaculate they transfer is small and that they remain in copula for a long time. Hence it seems that males are more successful in the sexual conflict over mating decisions and that females do not minimize mating costs by choosing to mate preferentially with virgin males.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01989364
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  • 9
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Oviposition preferences in Papilio machaon in relation to the host plants of the larvae (1974)
    Springer
    Entomologia experimentalis et applicata 17 (1974), S. 189-198 
    Details
    ISSN: 1570-7458
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Biology
    Description / Table of Contents: Zusammenfassung Nach Hopkins' Wirtswahlprinzip, der Theorie des “Larvengedächtnisses”, muss eine Art Erinnerung an die larvale Nahrung die Weibchen von phytophagen · Insekten vorbestimmen, die Eiablage an der gleichen Pflanzenart zu vollziehen, an der sie als Larve gefressen haben. Um die Gültigkeit dieses Prinzips zu beweisen, wurden Larven von Papilio machaon, Nachkommen eines Weibchens, an vier Umbelliferenarten aufgezogen, von denen zwei die vorherrschenden Wirtspflanzen in Schweden sind, Peucedanum palustre und Angelica archangelica ssp. littoralis, die beiden anderen dagegen in der Natur nur selten befallen werden, nämlich Pastinaca sativa und Aegopodium podagraria. Die jeweils an einer Wirtspflanze grossgezogenen Männchen und Weibchen wurden einzeln gepaart; darnach wurden die Weibchen einzeln auf Eiablagepräferenz getestet. Nach den Befunden war in keinem Fall die Eiablagepräferenz der Weibchen wesentlich beeinflusst durch die Larvennahrung (Abb. 1–5). Folglich trifft Hopkins' Prinzip für Papilio machaon (bzw. für die verwendete Versuchstierauswahl) nicht zu. Somit wird die adulte Eiablagepräferenz und die larvale Wirtspflanzenpräferenz durch genetische Faktoren bestimmt; da jedoch der Wirtspflanzenkreis der Larven nicht ganz identisch mit dem Eiablage-Pflanzenkreis ist, wird gefolgert, dass vermutlich zwei getrennte, unabhängige Gen-Komplexe die Beziehung Falter/Pflanze einerseits und Larve/Pflanze andererseits bestimmen.
    Notes: Abstract Hopkins' host selection principle postulates that a memory of the larval food predisposes the adult females of phytophagous insects to oviposit on the same plant species as that upon which they themselves had fed. To test the validity of this principle, the larval progeny of a female of Papilio machaon was reared on four umbelliferous host plants, after which the adult females were tested for oviposition preferences. The results show that in no case had the oviposition preferences of the females been influenced substantially by the larval food. The evolutionary significance of the results is discussed, leading to the hypothesis that the host plant range of larvae and adults, respectively, is genetically determined by two independent gene complexes.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00335875
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  • 10
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Host plant suitability and the mechanism of host selection in larvae of Papilio machaon (1973)
    Springer
    Entomologia experimentalis et applicata 16 (1973), S. 232-242 
    Details
    ISSN: 1570-7458
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Biology
    Description / Table of Contents: Zusammenfassung Wirtspflanzeneignung und Wirtspflanzenbevorzugung (Präferenz) wurden an Larven von Papilio machaon unter Verwendung von vier Umbelliferen-Arten untersucht, von denen zwei, Angelica archangelica ssp. littoralis und Peucedanum palustre, die häufigsten Wirtspflanzen in Schweden sind, und zwei andere, nämlich Pastinaca sativa und Aegopodium podagraria, in der Natur selten befressen werden. Unter Berücksichtigung der Mortalität, der larvalen Entwicklungsrate und des mittleren Puppengewichts kann versuchsweise folgende Reihe der Wirtspflanzeneignung aufgestellt werden: 1. Peucedanum, 2. Angelica, 3. Pastinaca, 4. Aegopodium. Hinsichtlich der Präferenz machen frischgeschlüpfte Larven keinerlei Unterschiede zwischen diesen vier Pflanzenarten, während Larven des 3. Stadiums offensichtlich die Pflanzenart bevorzugen, auf welcher sie aufgezogen worden waren. Auf der Basis dieser ontogenetischen Präferenzverschiebung wird die Bedeutung der Wirtspräferenz bei der Wirtspflanzenwahl für die Evolution diskutiert.
    Notes: Abstract Host plant suitability and host plant preferences were investigated in larvae of Papilio machaon, using four umbelliferous plants, two of which are the most common host plants in Sweden, i.e. Angelica archangelica ssp. littoralis and Peucedanum palustre, and two of which are seldom fed upon in nature, namely Pastinaca sativa and Aegopodium podagraria. Judging from mortality, larval development rate and mean pupal weights, a tentative hierarchy of host plant suitability was as follows: 1) Peucedanum, 2) Angelica, 3) Pastinaca, 4) Aegopodium. Concerning preferences, newly hatched larvae showed no preferential discrimination between these four plant species, whereas 3rd-stage larvae apparently preferred the plant species upon which they had been reared. On the basis of this ontogenetic preference transformation, the evolutionary significance of plant preferences in host plant selection is discussed.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00290696
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