ALBERT

Description / Table of Contents: C ontents -- Part 1. Theory -- To Understand Economics, Follow the Money: To Understand Ecosystems, Follow the Energy -- Two Views of Ecology, Evolution, and Conservation -- Why I Wrote this Book -- Dualities Still Impede Conservation Efforts -- The Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform of Biodiversity -- Targets for Conservation -- Evolving Objectives -- Literature Review -- Updating Ecosystem Ecology -- References -- What Can We Learn by Studying Ecosystems that We Can’t Learn from Studying Populations? -- The Predator-Prey Conundrum -- The Serengeti Ecosystem -- Evolution in the “Ecological Theater” -- Predator-Prey Interactions Tell Only Part of the Story -- Evolution in the “Thermodynamic Theater” -- References -- A Thermodynamic Definition of Ecosystems -- Ecosystems in the 20th Century -- Cycling of Strontium-90 -- Cesium-137 in Food Chains -- Recycling of Isotopes in Norwegian Sheep -- Ecological Energetics -- Is it Time to Bury the Ecosystem Concept? -- A Thermodynamic Definition of Life -- A Thermodynamic Definition of Ecosystems -- The Phase Transition between Order and Chaos -- References -- Thermodynamic Characteristics of Ecosystems -- Equilibrium -- The Equilibrium Law -- Thermodynamic Equilibrium -- Open Thermodynamic Systems -- Ecosystems are Thermodynamically Open Non-Equilibrium Systems -- Work is Performed by Non-equilibrium Systems -- Advantage of a Thermodynamically Open System -- 4.3 Ecosystems are Entropic -- 4.4 Ecosystems are Cybernetic -- Cybernetic Systems -- Economic Systems are Cybernetic Ecosystems are Cybernetic -- The Ecosystem Feedback Function -- Indirect vs. Direct Feedback -- Deviation Dampening and Amplifying Feedback -- Set Points -- Ecosystems are Autocatalytic -- Ecosystems have Boundaries -- Ecosystems are Hierarchical -- Hierarchy in Physical Systems -- Hierarchy in Ecological Systems -- Common Currencies -- Macro-and Micro-System Models -- Why an Ecosystem Model that Includes Everything is not Possible -- A Nested Marine Community -- Ecosystems are Deterministic -- Ecosystems are Information Rich -- An Engineering Definition of Information -- Information to Facilitate Exchange -- High Energy Information -- Low Energy Information -- Information Theory -- Genetic Information -- Ecosystems are Non-Teleological -- Criticisms of Ecosystem Models -- References -- Ecosystem Control: A Top-Down View -- Two Ways to Look at Systems -- Composing and Decomposing Trophic Webs -- Decomposers in Soil Organic Matter -- Decomposers in Marshes and Mangroves -- Control of Systems -- Top-Down vs. Bottom-Up -- Top-Down Exogenous Control -- Exogenous Impacts and Stability -- Top-Down Endogenous Control -- Endogenous Control through Nutrient Recycling -- Autocatalysis -- Control of Microbial Activity -- Inhibition of Microbial Activity by Leaf Sclerophylly -- Inhibition of Microbial Activity Chemical Defenses -- Inhibition of Microbial Activity by Ecological Stoichiometry -- The Synchrony Principle -- The Decay Law -- Direct Nutrient Cycling -- The Role of Animals -- Indirect Interactions -- Marine Systems -- Nutrient and Energy Recycling -- Exogenous Control -- Control in Lakes -- Control in Managed Ecosystems -- References -- Ecosystem Control: A Bottom-Up View -- Species as Arbitrageurs of Energy -- Relation Between Rate of Flow and Mass in Hydraulic Systems -- Relation Between Population Biomass and Rate of Energy Flow -- Equilibrium -- Mechanisms of Adjustment -- Adjustments and Climate Change -- Bird Populations -- Dis-equilibrium -- Population Instability vs. Ecosystem Instability -- Control by Interactions: Direct vs. Indirect -- Indirect Interactions -- Direct Interactions -- Predator – Prey -- Mutualisms -- Competition -- Decomposition -- Parasitism and Disease -- Commensalism and Amensalism -- Persistence of Negative Interactions -- References -- Ecosystem Stability -- Background -- A Thermodynamic Definition -- Regime Shift -- Metastability -- Pulsed Stability -- Resistance and Resilience -- Species Richness and Functional Stability -- Species Richness and Cultural Values -- Keystone Species, and Population and Ecosystem Stability -- 7.5.1 Keystone Species in the Yellowstone region of Wyoming -- References -- 8. Case Studies of Ecosystem Control and Stability -- Walden -- “Harmony in Nature” -- Feedback Produces Nature’s “Harmony” -- Feedback Mechanisms -- Perturbations in Amazon Rain Forests -- Top-Down Control -- The San Carlos Project: A Small-scale, Low Intensity, Short Duration Disturbance -- 8.3.2 The Jarí Project: A Large-scale, High Intensity, Long Duration Disturbance -- Bottom-Up Control -- The El Verde Project -- The Long-Term Ecological Research Project in Puerto Rico -- The Lago Guri Island Project -- The Biological Dynamics of Tropical Rainforest Fragments Project -- What have Case Studies Taught us about Stability of Tropical Ecosystems? -- Tropical Ecosystems are Stable -- Tropical Ecosystems are Unstable -- Energy Flow in Tropical Savannas and Rain Forests -- Insects in Tropical Ecosystems -- Application of Lessons to Other Regions -- Relevance to Temperate Zones -- Relevance to Aquatic Ecosystems -- The Experimental Lakes Project (Ecosystem Control of Species) -- Lake Mendota Studies (Species Control of Ecosystems) -- 8.7 Case Studies as Tests of Thermodynamic Theory -- References -- Entropy and Maximum Power -- Entropy -- 9.2 Entropy in a Steel Bar -- Thermodynamic Equilibrium -- Entropic Gradients -- Capturing and Storing Entropy -- Evapotranspiration and Entropy Reduction -- Life is a Balance between Storing and Releasing Entropy -- The Law of Maximum Entropy Production -- Energy for Metabolism as well as Growth -- Unassisted Entropy Capture is a Unique Characteristic of Life.-9.6Entropy Storage by Ecosystems -- 9.6.1 What Causes Entropy to be Stored? -- 9.7 Capturing Pressure -- 9.8 Entropy and Time -- 9.8.1 Time’s Speed Regulator -- Efficiency of Energy Transformations -- Passage of Time for Cats -- 9.9The Maximum Power Principle.-9.10 Optimum Efficiencies for a Truck and its Driver.-9.11 Sustainability -- References -- A Thermodynamic View of Succession -- 10.1 The Population View -- 10.2 The Thermodynamic View -- 10.2.1 Leaf Area Index and Succession -- 10.2.2 Power Output as a Function of Leaf Area Index -- 10.2.3 What Causes Changes in Leaf Area Index? -- 10.2.4 Maximum Entropy Production Principle -- 10.2.5 Successional Ecosystems Move Further from Thermodynamic Equilibrium -- 10.2.6 Entropy Storage by Animals -- 10.3 The Strategy of Ecosystem Development -- A Problem with Odum’s Strategy -- Why Power Output Continues to Increase -- Revised Definition of Maximum Power -- Costs of Ecosystem Stabilization -- Transactional Costs -- Succession, Power Output, and Efficiency -- 10.5.1 Kleiber’s Law -- Are Ecosystems Spendthrifts? -- Interactions Between Species Facilitate Increase in Power Output -- Facilitation -- Tolerance -- Inhibition -- Intermediate Disturbance Hypothesis -- Nutrient Use Efficiency during Succession -- Succession Following Logging vs Following Agriculture -- 10.10 Thermodynamic View of Succession: Implications for Resource Management -- References -- Panarchy -- The Universal Cycle of Systems -- Panarchy -- Thermodynamic Interpretation of the Sacred Rules -- 11.2.1 Growth and Consolidation -- 11.2.2 Collapse -- Renewal -- Sub-systems -- Panarchy over 2 Billion Years of Evolution -- Consolidation, Bureaucracy and System Collapse -- Bureaucracy in Action (Case Studies) -- Case Study: Panarchy in the Georgia Piedmont -- Thermodynamic Interpretation -- References -- 12. A Thermodynamic View of Evolution -- 12.1 Life – A Physicist's View -- 12.1.1 Life is Produced by Capturing Entropy -- 12.1.2 The Origin of Life -- 12.2 Two Approaches to Evolution -- 12.2.1 The Eco-Evo-Devo View -- 12.2.2 The Thermodynamic View -- 12.2.3 Fitness -- 12.2.4 The “Goal” of Evolution -- 12.3 The Relationship between Species and Environment -- 12.3.1 Evolution’s “Theater” -- 12.3.2 Is Evolution Stochastic or Deterministic? -- 12.4 Ecosystem Evolution -- 12.4.1 Succession was the Clue -- 12.4.2 Ecosystems Moved away from Equilibrium -- 12.4.3 Thermodynamic Mechanisms -- 12.4.4 Biological Mechanisms -- 12.4.5 Ecosystem Fitness -- 12.4.6 Ecosystems Evolve One Step at a Time -- 12.5. The Origin of Ecosystems -- 12.5.1 Origin of Feedback Loops -- 12.5.2 Origin of Trophic Levels -- 12.5.3 Why are there Trophic Levels? -- 12.6 The “Goal” of Ecosystem Evolution -- 12.6.1 Conflicting Goals? -- 12.6.2 “Motivations” of Species -- 12.6.3 The Earth Ecosystem -- 12.6.4 Why is there Resistance to the Idea of Ecosystem Evolution? -- 12.6.5 Evolution of Economic Systems -- 12.7 A Thermodynamic Model of Ecosystem Evolution -- 12.7.1 Network Models -- 12.7.2 Increase in Complexity of Trophic Webs -- 12.7.3 Evolution of Trophic Webs -- 12.7.4 Life Moves Ashore -- 12.8 Biodiversity and the Five Great Extinctions -- 12.8.1 The Cretaceous-Tertiary (K-T) Boundary Extinction -- 12.8.2The Amazing Sustainability of Trophic Chains -- 12.8.3 A Test of Thermodynamic Theory -- 12.9 Panarchy and Evolution -- 12.10 Thermodynamic Requirements for Living Systems on Other Planets -- References -- -- Why is Species Diversity Higher in the Tropics? -- 13.1 Tropical Explorations -- 13.2 A Few Theories -- 13.3 A Thermodynamic Explanation -- 13.3.1 The Latitudinal Energy Gradient -- 13.3.2 The Latitudinal Productivity Gradient -- 13.3.3 The Data -- 13.3.4 Other Factors Affecting Productivity -- 13.4 Empirical Evidence for a High Productivity High Diversity Correlation -- 13.5 Humboldt’s Enigma -- 13.5.1 Are Productivity and Species Richness Correlated on Tropical -- Mountains? -- 13.6 The Mechanism Linking Productivity and Diversity -- 13.7 Answer to “Why is Species Diversity Higher in the Tropics?” -- 13.7.1 Differences within the Tropics -- 13.8 Why is Species Diversity Low at High Latitudes? -- 13.9 An Economic Perspective on D.