ALBERT

Description: Primitive basalts are rarely found in arcs. The active NW Rota-1 volcano in the Mariana arc has erupted near-primitive lavas, which we have sampled with ROV Hyper-Dolphin (HPD). Samples from the summit (HPD480) and eastern flank (HPD488) include 17 magnesian basalts (51–52 wt % SiO 2 ) with 7·5–9·5 wt % MgO and Mg-number of 61–67, indicating little fractionation. Olivine phenocrysts are as magnesian as Fo 93 and contain 0·4 wt % NiO; the Cr/(Cr + Al) values of spinels are mostly 0·5–0·8, indicating equilibrium with depleted mantle. There are three petrographic groups, based on phenocryst populations: (1) cpx–olivine basalt (COB); (2) plagioclase–olivine basalt (POB); (3) porphyritic basalt. Zr/Y and Nb/Yb are higher in POB (3·1–3·2 and 1·2–1·5, respectively) than in COB (Zr/Y = 2·8–3·0 and Nb/Yb = 0·7–0·9), suggesting that POB formed from lower degrees of mantle melting, or that the COB mantle source was more depleted. On the other hand, COB have Ba/Nb (70–80) and Th/Nb (0·4–0·5) that are higher than for POB (Ba/Nb = 30–35 and Th/Nb = 0·1–0·2), and also have steeper light rare earth element (LREE)-enriched patterns. Moreover, COB have enriched 87 Sr/ 86 Sr and 143 Nd/ 144 Nd, and higher Pb isotope values, suggesting that COB has a greater subduction component than POB. 176 Hf/ 177 Hf between COB and POB are similar and Hf behavior in COB and POB is similar to that of Zr, Y and HREE, suggesting that Hf is not included in the subduction component, which produced the differences between COB and POB. The calculated primary basaltic magmas of NW Rota-1 volcano (primary COB and POB magmas) indicate segregation pressures of 2–1·5 GPa (equivalent to 65–50 km depth). These magmas formed by 24–18% melting of mantle peridotite having Mg-number ~89·5. Diapiric ascent of hydrous peridotite mixed heterogeneously with sediment melts may be responsible for the NW Rota-1 basalts. These two basalt magma types are similar to those found at Sumisu and Torishima volcanoes in the Izu–Bonin arc, with COB representing wetter and POB representing drier magmas, where subduction zone-derived melt components are coupled with the water contents.

Description: Pagan is one of the largest volcanoes along the Mariana arc volcanic front. It has a maximum elevation of 570 m (Mt. Pagan), but its submarine flanks descend to 2000–3000 m below sea level, and are unexplored. Bathymetric mapping and ROV Hyper-Dolphin dives (HPD1147 and HPD1148) on the submarine NE and SW flanks of Pagan were carried out during cruise NT10-12 of R.V. Natsushima in July 2010. There are no systematic compositional differences between subaerial lavas reported in the literature and differentiated submarine lavas collected in HPD1148, with 〈7 wt % MgO, suggesting they are derived from the same magmatic system. However, these differentiated lavas show complexities including magma mixing; thus we concentrate on magnesian submarine lavas (〉7 wt % MgO). Twenty least-fractionated basalts (48·5–50 wt % SiO 2 ) collected during HPD1147 extend to higher MgO (10–11 wt %) and Mg# (66–70) than the subaerial lavas. Olivine (up to Fo 94 ) and spinel (Cr# up to 0·8) compositions suggest that these Pagan primitive magmas formed from high degrees of mantle melting. Two basalt types can be distinguished based on their geochemistry at similar (10–11 wt %) MgO; these erupted recently, 500 m apart. Both contain clinopyroxene and olivine phenocrysts and are referred to as COB1 and COB2. Lower TiO 2 , FeO, Na 2 O, K 2 O, incompatible trace element abundances, and Nb/Yb suggest that COB1 formed from higher degrees of mantle melting. In addition, light rare earth element (LREE) enrichment and higher Th/Nb in COB2 contrast with LREE depletion and lower Th/Nb in COB1. Higher Ba/Th and Ba/Nb and lower Th/Nb indicate that the main subduction addition in COB1 was dominated by hydrous fluid, whereas that in COB2 was dominated by sediment melt. Sr–Nd–Pb–Hf isotopes are also consistent with this interpretation. These observations suggest that the subduction component responsible for the greater degree of melting of the COB1 source was mostly hydrous fluid. The origin of such different metasomatic agents resulted in different primary magmas forming in the same volcano. Both hydrous fluid and sediment melt components may have unmixed from an originally homogeneous supercritical fluid in or above the subducting slab below the volcanic front. These may have been added separately to the mantle wedge peridotite (mantle diapir) and resulted in two neighboring but completely different primary magmas from the same diapir. Moreover, these primitive lavas suggest that even for intra-oceanic arcs assimilation–fractional crystallization is inevitable when these magmas evolve in the crust and, in addition, that phlogopite is present in their mantle residue and thus played an important role in their genesis.

Description: Clark volcano of the Kermadec arc, northeast of New Zealand, is a large stratovolcano comprised of two coalescing volcanic cones; an apparently younger, more coherent, twin-peaked edifice to the northwest and a relatively older, more degraded and tectonized cone to the southeast. High-resolution water column surveys show an active hydrothermal system at the summit of the NW cone largely along a ridge spur connecting the two peaks, with activity also noted at the head of scarps related to sector collapse. Clark is the only known cone volcano along the Kermadec arc to host sulfide mineralization. Volcano-scale gravity and magnetic surveys over Clark show that it is highly magnetized, and that a strong gravity gradient exists between the two edifices. Modeling suggests that a crustal-scale fault lies between these two edifices, with thinner crust beneath the NW cone. Locations of regional earthquake epicenters show a southwest-northeast trend bisecting the two Clark cones, striking northeastward into Tangaroa volcano. Detailed mapping of magnetics above the NW cone summit shows a highly magnetized "ring structure" ~350 m below the summit that is not apparent in the bathymetry; we believe this structure represents the top of a caldera. Oblate zones of low (weak) magnetization caused by hydrothermal fluid upflow, here termed "burn holes," form a pattern in the regional magnetization resembling Swiss cheese. Presumably older burn holes occupy the inner margin of the ring structure and show no signs of hydrothermal activity, while younger burn holes are coincident with active venting on the summit. A combination of mineralogy, geochemistry, and seafloor mapping of the NW cone shows that hydrothermal activity today is largely manifest by widespread diffuse venting, with temperatures ranging between 56° and 106°C. Numerous, small (≤30 cm high) chimneys populate the summit area, with one site host to the ~7-m-tall "Twin Towers" chimneys with maximum vent fluid temperatures of 221°C (pH 4.9), consistent with 34 S anhydrite-pyrite values indicating formation temperatures of ~228° to 249°C. Mineralization is dominated by pyrite-marcasite-barite-anhydrite. Radiometric dating using the 228 Ra/ 226 Ra and 226 Ra/Ba methods shows active chimneys to be 〈20 with most 〈2 years old. However, the chimneys at Clark show evidence for mixing with, and remobilizing of, barite as old as 19,000 years. This is consistent with Nd and Sr isotope compositions of Clark chimney and sulfate crust samples that indicate mixing of ~40% seawater with a vent fluid derived from low K lavas. Similarly, REE data show the hydrothermal fluids have interacted with a plagioclase-rich source rock. A holistic approach to the study of the Clark hydrothermal system has revealed a two-stage process whereby a caldera-forming volcanic event preceded a later cone-building event. This ensured a protracted (at least 20 ka yrs) history of hydrothermal activity and associated mineral deposition. If we assume at least 200-m-high walls for the postulated (buried) caldera, then hydrothermal fluids would have exited the seafloor 20 ka years ago at least 550 m deeper than they do today, with fluid discharge temperatures potentially much hotter (~350°C). Subsequent to caldera infilling, relatively porous volcaniclastic and other units making up the cone acted as large-scale filters, enabling ascending hydrothermal fluids to boil and mix with seawater subseafloor, effectively removing the metals (including remobilized Cu) in solution before they reached the seafloor. This has implications for estimates for the metal inventory of seafloor hydrothermal systems pertaining to arc hydrothermal systems.

Description: Near-bottom magnetic anomaly data have been acquired using autonomous underwater vehicles at Brothers volcano, southern Kermadec arc, New Zealand. Crustal magnetization for the study area was obtained by inverting the magnetic data and shows a strong correlation between areas of low magnetization and four hydrothermal fields, one of which was unknown prior to our surveys. The magnetization pattern is consistent with a model of discrete, individual zones of fluid upflow focused along caldera ring faults that provide preferred pathways for the ascent of the hydrothermal fluids. Differences in the amplitude of the magnetization over the vent fields appear to correlate with age and temperature variations of the hydrothermal fields.

Description: Submarine edifices with caldera summits are common along volcanic arcs and much more likely than simple cones to host hydrothermal venting. Compared with cones, however, locating all vent field locations on a caldera's complex bathymetry is a daunting logistical challenge. Here we describe the first use of an autonomous underwater vehicle, ABE, to fully map the distribution of near-bottom hydrothermal tracers over the caldera walls and cone complex of Brothers Volcano, the most active hydrothermal source on the southern Kermadec arc. Sensors on ABE simultaneously measured hydrothermal plume anomalies in temperature, light backscattering (particle concentration), and oxidation-reduction potential (dissolved reduced species) every 2 to 3 m along track. Local maxima in these tracers confirmed known sites on the northwestern wall and the cone summits, and more precisely mapped their extents. We discovered evidence for new sites throughout the entire northwestern half of the caldera wall, at the base of the southeastern wall, and on the flanks of both cones. Systematic variations in the backscattering/temperature ratio identified different types of fluid discharge. Plumes from high-temperature, metal-rich sources dominated the caldera wall, while on top of the caldera wall and on the cones we found only plumes from low-temperature diffuse flow, including occasional S-rich plumes. Source distribution on the walls appears fault controlled, but we detected no sources along the deepest fault defining the rim of the downdropped caldera floor. Advanced deep-sea survey techniques using autonomous vehicles is an indispensible and cost-effective tool for acquiring a comprehensive understanding of the relationship between hydrothermal discharge and geology on individual volcanoes.

Description: The Monowai volcanic center is located at the midpoint along the ~2,530-km-long Tonga-Kermadec arc system. The Monowai volcanic center is comprised of a large elongate caldera (Monowai caldera area ~35 km 2 ; depth to caldera floor 1,590 m), which has formed within an older caldera some 84 km 2 in area. To the south of this nested caldera system is a large composite volcano, Monowai cone, which rises to within ~100 m of the sea surface and which has been volcanically active for the past several decades. Mafic volcanic rocks dominate the Monowai volcanic center; basalts are the most common rock type recovered from the cone, whereas basaltic andesites are common within the caldera. Hydrothermal plume mapping has shown at least three major hydrothermal systems associated with the caldera and cone: (1) the summit of the cone, (2) low-temperature venting (〈60°C; Mussel Ridge) on the southwestern wall of the caldera, and (3) a deeper caldera source with higher temperature venting that has yet to be observed. The cone summit plume shows large anomalies in pH (a shift of –2.00 pH units) and 3 He (≤358%), and noticeable H 2 S (up to 32 μ m), and CH 4 (up to 900 nm). The summit plume is also metal rich, with elevated total dissolvable Fe (TDFe up to 4,200 nm), TDMn (up to 412 nm), and TDFe/TDMn (up to 20.4). Particulate samples have elevated Fe, Si, Al, and Ti consistent with addition to the hydrothermal fluid from acidic water-rock reaction. Plumes extending from ~1,000- to 1,400-m depth provide evidence for a major hydrothermal vent system in the caldera. The caldera plume has lower values for TDFe and TDMn, although some samples show higher TDMn concentrations than the cone summit plume; caldera plume samples are also relatively gas poor (i.e., no H 2 S detected, pH shift of –0.06 pH units, CH 4 concentrations up to 26 nm). The composition of the hydrothermal plumes in the caldera have higher metal contents than the sampled vent fluids along Mussel Ridge, requiring that the source of the caldera plumes is at greater depth and likely of higher temperature. Minor plumes detected as light scattering anomalies but with no 3 He anomalies down the northern flank of the Monowai caldera most likely represent remobilization of volcanic debris from the volcano flanks. We believe the Monowai volcanic center is host to a robust magmatic-hydrothermal system, with significant differences in the style and composition of venting at the cone and caldera sites. At the cone, the large shifts in pH, very high 3 He% values, elevated TDFe and TDFe/TDMn, and the H 2 S- and CH 4 -rich nature of the plume fluids, together with elevated Ti, P, V, S, and Al in hydrothermal particulates, indicates significant magmatic volatile ± metal contributions in the hydrothermal system coupled with aggressive acidic water-rock interaction. By contrast, the caldera has low TDFe/TDMn in hydrothermal plumes; however, elevated Al and Ti contents in caldera particulate samples, combined with the presence of alunite, pyrophyllite, sulfide minerals, and native sulfur in samples from Mussel Ridge suggest past, and perhaps recent, acid volatile-rich venting and active Fe sulfide formation in the subsurface.

Description: A survey of the Brothers caldera volcano (Kermadec arc) with the autonomous underwater vehicle ABE has revealed new details of the morphology and structure of this submarine frontal arc caldera and the geologic setting of its hydrothermal activity. Brothers volcano has formed between major SW-NE–trending faults within the extensional field of the Havre Trough. Brothers may be unique among known submarine calderas in that it has four active hydrothermal systems, two high-temperature sulfide-depositing sites associated with faulting on the northwestern and western walls (i.e., the NW caldera and W caldera hydrothermal sites, respectively), and gas-rich sites on the summits of the constructional cones that fill most of the southern part of the caldera (i.e., the Upper and Lower cone sites). The 3.0- x 3.4-km caldera is well defined by a topographic rim encompassing ~320° of its circumference and which lies between the bounds of two outer half-graben–shaped faults in the northwest and southeast sectors. There is not a morphologically well defined continuous ring fault (at the map resolution), although near-vertical scarps are present discontinuously at the base of sections of the wall. The width of the wall varies from 〈200 m at its southwest portion to ~750 m on its northern section. The widest part of the wall is its northwest sector, which also has the largest documented area of hydrothermal alteration and where sea-floor magnetization is lowest. In addition to primary northwest-southeast elongation and southwest-northeast structures caused by faulting within the regional back-arc strain field, there are also less well developed west-southwest–north-northeast regional structures intersecting the volcano that is apparent on the ABE bathymetry and at outcrop scale from submersible observations. Asymmetrical trap-door–style caldera collapse is considered a possible mechanism for the formation of the Brothers caldera.