ALBERT

Description: Purpose: Understanding farmers’ perceptions of how the climate is changing is vital to anticipating its impacts. Farmers are known to take appropriate steps to adapt only when they perceive change to be taking place. This study aims to analyse how African indigenous vegetable (AIV) farmers perceive climate change in three different agro-climatic zones (ACZs) in Kenya, identify the main differences in historical seasonal and annual rainfall and temperature trends between the zones, discuss differences in farmers’ perceptions and historical trends and analyse the impact of these perceived changes and trends on yields, weeds, pests and disease infestation of AIVs. Design/methodology/approach: Data collection was undertaken in focus group discussions (FGD) (N = 211) and during interviews with individual farmers (N = 269). The Mann–Kendall test and regression were applied for trend analysis of time series data (1980-2014). Analysis of variance and least significant difference were used to test for differences in mean rainfall data, while a chi-square test examined the association between farmer perceptions and ACZs. Coefficient of variation expressed as a percentage was used to show variability in mean annual and seasonal rainfall between the zones. Findings: Farmers perceived that higher temperatures, decreased rainfall, late onset and early retreat of rain, erratic rainfall patterns and frequent dry spells were increasing the incidences of droughts and floods. The chi-square results showed a significant relationship between some of these perceptions and ACZs. Meteorological data provided some evidence to support farmers’ perceptions of changing rainfall. No trend was detected in mean annual rainfall, but a significant increase was recorded in the semi-humid zone. A decreasing maximum temperature was noted in the semi-humid zone, but otherwise, an overall increase was detected. There were highly significant differences in mean annual rainfall between the zones. Farmers perceived reduced yields and changes in pest infestation and diseases in some AIVs to be prevalent in the dry season. This study’s findings provide a basis for local and timely institutional changes, which could certainly help in reducing the adverse effects of climate change. Originality/value: This is an original research paper and the historical trends, farmers’ perceptions and effects of climate change on AIV production documented in this paper may also be representative of other ACZs in Kenya.

Description: Understanding the adaptive capacity (AC) of farmers is crucial to planning effective adaptation. Action to promote farmers’ AC is required because climate change (CC) is resulting in unpredictable alterations in weather patterns. Based on the sustainable livelihoods framework (SLF), this study explored how access to natural, physical, financial, social and human capitals enhances the AC. Quantitative data from 269 African indigenous vegetable (AIV) farmers in three selected agro-climatic zones in Kenya were analysed. Four indicators in each capital were selected based on previous studies and judgments collected from an expert online ranking survey (n = 35). The Kruskal-Wallis H test and an independent sample t-test were used to test the independence of AC scores and access to the different resources. The findings showed that the majority of farmers (53%) had a moderate AC, while fewer (32%) and (15%) had low or high AC levels respectively. Disparities in adaptive capacity scores were recorded between respondents in terms of their age, marital status and location. Farmers had high access to social capital but low access to financial, natural and human capitals. Female farmers showed lower capacities in the areas of financial, human and natural resources, while their male counterparts had low access to some human and social capitals. Resilient interventions that target individuals with low adaptive capacities are required.

Description: Smallholder farmers have adopted diverse adaptation practices to lessen the effect of climate change. However, context-specific information about why particular adaptation strategies are adopted remains limited. This study examined the factors that facilitate the choice of farm-level adaptation strategies to climate change (CC) using data collected from 269 African indigenous vegetable (AIV) farmers in Kenya. A multivariate probit (MVP) regression model was used to evaluate the determinants of adaptation choices. The most frequently adopted strategies considered for analysis were manure application, increased pesticide use, crop rotation, irrigation, change of planting dates and terracing. The results reveal that land ownership, group membership, access to extension services and education level were some of the key drivers of adoption. This implies that policies and programmes that are designed to build the ability of smallholder AIV farmers to adapt to climate change should focus on organising farmers into groups, disseminating timely weather information, improving land tenure security, increasing off-farm employment and providing greater access to extension services.

Description: Climate change presents a global environmental threat to all economic sectors and particularly to the agricultural sector. Kenya is one of the countries negatively affected by climate change due to its high exposure to extreme events and the low adaptive capacity of smallholder farmers. Farmers are facing water scarcity, unpredictable weather patterns, dry spells, droughts, and rising temperatures. The effects of high temperatures, drought, and dry spells lead to serious losses in vegetable yields. Smallholder farmers involved in vegetable production are most at risk due to the sensitivities of vegetable production and their high vulnerability. Drought and water stress have been identified as important limiting factors in vegetable production. This paper examines the climate change adaptation strategies of farmers of African indigenous vegetable (AIV) in three agro-climatic zones (ACZs) in Kenya. Data from 18 focus group discussions (FGDs) and 269 interviews with farmers were analyzed. This study showed that AIV farmers have responded to climate change with a wide range of farm-level adaptation measures and all of the respondents use a combination of these strategies. Farm production practices, such as the application of manure, frequent weeding, and watering of vegetables, were most widespread, while migration to urban areas and buying insurance were the strategies adopted least across all zones. The results revealed a significant association between particular adaptation strategies and ACZs, particularly in soil and water management practices and land-use adjustments. This study offers policy recommendations for accelerating AIV farmers’ resilience by supporting opportunities for livelihood diversification.