ALBERT

Note: Contents: Preface. - 1 Introduction and Historical Development. - 2 Physical Description of the Climate System. - 2.1 Atmosphere. - 2.1 .1 Atmospheric composition. - 2.1.2 Temperature profiles. - 2.1.3 Energy balances. - 2.1.4 Average surface temperature patterns. - 2.1.5 Large-scale hemispheric circulation patterns: Three-cell structure. - 2.1.6 Land/sea breezes and monsoons. - 2.2 Oceans. - 2.2.1 Seawater composition. - 2.2.2 Ocean temperatures. - 2.2.3 Ocean circulation. - 2.3 Sea Ice. - 2.3.1 Global sea ice distributions. - 2.3.2 Sea ice formation and growth. - 2.3.3 Sea ice ablation. - 2.3.4 Sea ice composition and properties. - 2.3.5 Sea ice topography. - 2.3.6 Sea ice concentration and velocity. - 2.4 Atmosphere/Ocean/lce Interconnections. - 2.4.1 Impacts of the atmosphere. - 2.4.2 Impacts of the ocean. - 2.4.3 An example of atmosphere/ocean interconnections: The El Nino/Southern Oscillation. - 2.4.4 North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO). - 2.4.5 Impacts of the ice. - 3 Basic Model Equations. - 3.1 Fundamental Equations. - 3.1.1 Conservation of momentum. - 3.1.2 Conservation of mass. - 3.1.3 First law of thermodynamics. - 3.1.4 Equation of state. - 3.2 Summary of the Basic Predictive Equations for the Atmosphere. - 3.3 Vertical Coordinate Systems. - 3.4 Atmospheric and Ocean Dynamics. - 3.4.1 Vorticity and divergence equations. - 3.4.2 Baroclinic models. - 3.5 Early General Atmospheric Circulation Model of the Atmosphere. - 3.6 Radiative and Cloud Processes. - 3.6.1 Radiation: Basic principles. - 3.6.2 Radiation: Physical laws. - 3.6.3 Solar radiation. - 3.6.4 Radiation: Effect of aerosols. - 3.6.5 Net heating/cooling rates. - 3.6.6 Moisture and precipitation. - 3.6.7 Clouds. - 3.6.8 Cumulus parameterization, general theory. - 3.6.9 Convective adjustment parameterization. - 3.6.10 More refined schemes for cumulus convection. - 3.7 Surface Processes. - 3.7.1 Boundary fluxes at the Earth's surface. - 3.7.2 Computation of surface temperature and hydrology. - 3.8 Ocean Models. - 3.8.1 Ocean model fundamentals. - 3.8.2 Parameterization of ocean eddies. - 3.8.3 Generalized coordinate systems for ocean modeling. - 3.8.4 lsopycnal ocean model. - 3.9 Sea Ice Models. - 3.9.1 lce thermodynamics. - 3.9.2 Ice dynamics. - 3.10 River Transport. - 4 Basic Methods of Solving Model Equations. - 4.1 Finite Differences. - 4.2 Finite Differencing in Two Dimensions. - 4.3 Spectral Method. - 4.3.1 Vibrating string example. - 4.3.2 Gibbs phenomenon. - 4.3.3 More general considerations of Fourier series and integrals. - 4.4 Spherical Representation. - 4.5 Spectral Transform Technique. - 4.6 Vertical Representation. - 4.7 Lagrangian and Semi-Lagrangian Methods. - 4.8 Spectral Element Method. - 5 Examples of Simulations of Present-Day Climate. - 5.1 Simulations of the Atmosphere. - 5.2 Simulations of the Ocean. - 5.3 Simulations of Sea Ice. - 5.4 Coupled Atmosphere, Land / Vegetation, Ocean, and Sea Ice Simulations. - 5.5 El Nino Simulations. - 5.6 Regional Climate Modeling. - 5.7 Modeling Groups. - 6 Climate Sensitivity Experiments. - 6.1 Sample Early Paleoclimate Simulations. - 6.2 Sample Later Paleoclimate Simulations. - 6.3 Sample Simulation of the Last Millennium. - 6.4 Sample Early Simulations of the El Nino/ Southern Oscillation. - 6.5 Sample Later Simulation of the El Nino/ Southern Oscillation. - 6.6 Research on the Climatic Effects of Increasing Greenhouse Gases and Aerosols. - 6.7 Sample Early Climate Model Simulations of the Effects of Greenhouse Gases. - 6.8 Later Simulations of the Effects of Greenhouse Gases, Aerosols, and Other Climate Forcings. - 6.9 Climate Modeling with the Carbon Cycle. - 6.10 Possible Climatic Effects Due to Nuclear War. - 6.11 Overview of Climate Sensitivity Studies. - 7 Outlook for Future Developments. - 7.1 Climate Model Evolution and Status. - 7.2 Issues Involved in Coupling. - 7.3 Continuing Needs. - 7.4 Two Further Potential Uses of Climate Models. - 7.5 National Research Council Assessment. - 7.6 Concluding Remarks. - APPENDIX A Vector Calculus. - A.1 Vector Operations in a Cartesian Coordinate System. - A.1.1 Vector addition and subtraction. - A.1.2 Vector multiplication. - A.1.3 Vector differentiation. - A.1.4 Gradient (del) operator. - A.2 Vector Operations in Generalized and Spherical Coordinates. - A.3 Vectors on a Rotating Sphere. - APPENDIX B Legendre Polynomials and Gaussian Quadrature. - APPENDIX C Derivation of Energy Equations. - APPENDIX D Unit Abbreviations. - APPENDIX E Physical Constants in Système International (SI) Units, and Typical Surface Albedos. - APPENDIX F Conversions and Prefixes. - APPENDIX G Greek Alphabet. - APPENDIX H Acronyms. - APPENDIX I Aerosols. - APPENDIX J Solar Radiation, Including Effects of Aerosols. - APPENDIX K Internet Sites for Climate Modeling and Climate Data. - APPENDIX L Computer Architectures Used in Climate Modeling: Definition of Terms. - Bibliography. - Index. - About the Authors.