ALBERT

Description: Ocean heat storage due to local addition of heat (“added”) and due to changes in heat transport (“redistributed”) were quantified in ocean-only 2xCO2 simulations. While added heat storage dominates globally, redistribution makes important regional contributions, especially in the tropics. Heat redistribution is dominated by circulation changes, summarized by the super-residual transport, with only minor effects from changes in vertical mixing. While previous studies emphasized the contribution of redistribution feedback at high latitudes, this study shows that redistribution of heat also accounts for 65% of heat storage at low latitudes and 25% in the midlatitude (35°–50°S) Southern Ocean. Tropical warming results from the interplay between increased stratification and equatorward heat transport by the subtropical gyres, which redistributes heat from the subtropics to lower latitudes. The Atlantic pattern is remarkably distinct from other basins, resulting in larger basin-average heat storage. Added heat storage is evenly distributed throughout midlatitude Southern Ocean and dominates the total storage. However, redistribution stores heat north of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current in the Atlantic and Indian sectors, having an important contribution to the peak of heat storage at 45°S. Southern Ocean redistribution results from intensified heat convergence in the subtropical front and reduced stratification in response to surface heat, freshwater, and momentum flux perturbations. These results highlight that the distribution of ocean heat storage reflects both passive uptake of heat and active redistribution of heat by changes in ocean circulation processes. The redistributed heat transport must therefore be better understood for accurate projection of changes in ocean heat uptake efficiency, ocean heat storage, and thermosteric sea level.

Description: We describe the seasonal and interannual variability of volume transports in Weddell and Ross Seas using the 1/12° 20-yr simulation of the OCCAM global ocean general circulation model. The average simulated full-depth cumulative volume transports were 28.5 ± 2.9 Sv (1 Sv ≡ 106 m3 s−1) and 13.4 ± 5.2 Sv, across the main export regions of the Weddell and Ross Seas, respectively. The values of mean outflow of Antarctic Bottom Water (AABW) (defined by neutral density γn ≥ 28.27 kg m−3) from the Weddell and Ross Seas of 10.6 ± 3.1 Sv and 0.5 ± 0.7 Sv, respectively, agree with the range reported in historical observational studies. Variability in AABW export is predominantly at periods of ~1 yr and 2–4 yr. The transit time taken by AABW sourced in the Southern Weddell Sea to reach the main Weddell export zone is ~2 yr. Lagged correlation between the thermohaline properties of AABW source waters and AABW export indicates that recent shelf waters freshening trends are likely related to changes in the AABW outflow rates.

Description: Oceanic eddies exist throughout the world oceans, but are more energetic when associated with western boundary currents (WBC) systems. In these regions, eddies play an important role in mixing and energy exchange. Therefore, it is important to quantify and qualify eddies associated with these systems. This is particularly true for the Southern Hemisphere WBC system where only few eddy censuses have been performed to date. In these systems, important aspects of the local eddy population are still unknown, like their spatial distribution and propagation patterns. Moreover, the understanding of these patterns helps to establish monitoring programs and to gain insight in how eddies would affect local mixing. Here, we use a global eddy data set to qualify eddies based on their surface characteristics in the Agulhas Current (AC), the Brazil Current (BC) and the East Australian Current (EAC) systems. The analyses reveal that eddy propagation within each system is highly forced by the local mean flow and bathymetry. Large values of eddy amplitude and temporal variability are associated with the BC and EAC retroflections, while small values occur in the centre of the Argentine Basin and in the Tasman Sea. In the AC system, eddy polarity dictates the propagation distance. BC system eddies do not propagate beyond the Argentine Basin, and are advected by the local ocean circulation. EAC system eddies from both polarities cross south of Tasmania but only the anticyclonic ones reach the Great Australian Bight. For all three WBC systems, both cyclonic and anticyclonic eddies present a geographical segregation according to radius size and amplitude. Regions of high eddy kinetic energy are associated with the eddies' mean amplitudes, and not with their densities.

Description: We analyzed the ability of the Estimating the Circulation and Climate of the Ocean – Phase II (ECCO2) reanalysis to represent the hydrographic properties and variability of Antarctic Bottom Water (AABW) in the Southern Ocean. We used a 20-year (1992–2011) observational database to perform comparisons of hydrographic properties and reanalysis output for the same time period. Four case studies based on current meter data and the AABW volume transport estimates previously reported in the literature were also evaluated. The opening and maintenance of an oceanic polynya in the Weddell Sea sector is observed after 2004 in the reanalysis product. Moreover, intense deep water production due to deep convection occurs, which leads to a scenario in which the Weddell Sea is flooded with AABW. For this reason, our analyses focused on the period that was identified as more reliable (1992–2004). The main Southern Ocean oceanographic features, as well as the characteristic shape of the regional potential temperature–salinity (θ–S) diagrams, are coincident with observations. However, the reanalysis output produces surface waters that are generally denser than observations due to the reproduction of waters that are generally saltier than expected, which probably resulted from the strong seasonality of sea ice concentrations. Bottom waters are warmer and less dense, while intermediate waters are statistically closest to the observations. The differences in bottom water properties are partially due to the inability of the reanalysis to properly reproduce the formation and export of dense waters from the shelf and the consequent absence of the densest AABW variety for most of the analyzed period. Despite differences in the absolute values, the upper AABW limit (γn ≥ 28.27 kg m−3) and AABW occupied area estimates are coincident with the observations in the World Ocean Circulation Experiment (WOCE) repeat sections SR2 and SR4. Moreover, the AABW volume export and current velocity variability are correlated with the observed time series in the most important region of dense water export (i.e., the Weddell Sea). Despite the consistency in terms of variability, the absolute volume transport and velocity estimates are underrepresented in all cases.

Description: We describe the seasonal and interannual variability of volume transports in the Weddell and Ross Seas using the 1/12° 20-yr simulation of the OCCAM global ocean general circulation model. The average simulated full-depth cumulative volume transports were 28.5 ± 2.9 Sv (1 Sv ≡ 106 m3 s−1) and 13.4 ± 5.2 Sv, across the main export regions of the Weddell and Ross Seas, respectively. The values of mean outflow of Antarctic Bottom Water (AABW) (defined by neutral density γn ≥ 28.27 kg m−3) from the Weddell and Ross Seas of 10.6 ± 3.1 Sv and 0.5 ± 0.7 Sv, respectively, agree with the range reported in historical observational studies. The export of Weddell Sea dense water in OCCAM is primarily determined by the strength of the Weddell Gyre. Variability in AABW export is predominantly at periods of ~1 yr and 2–4 yr.

Description: Oceanic eddies occur in all world oceans, but are more energetic when associated to western boundary currents (WBC) systems. In these regions, eddies play an important role on mixing and energy exchange. Therefore, it is important to quantify and qualify eddies occurring within these systems. Previous studies performed eddy censuses in Southern Hemisphere WBC systems. However, important aspects of local eddy population are still unknown. Main questions to be answered relate to eddies' spatial distribution, propagation and lifetime within each system. Here, we use a global eddy dataset to qualify eddies based on their surface characteristics at the Agulhas Current (AC), the Brazil Current (BC) and the East Australian Current (EAC) Systems. We show that eddy propagation within each system is highly forced by the local mean flow and bathymetry. In the AC System, eddy polarity dictates its propagation distance. BC system eddies do not propagate beyond the Argentine Basin, and are advected by the local ocean circulation. EAC System eddies from both polarities cross south of Tasmania, but only anticyclonics reach the Great Australian Bight. Eddies in all systems and from both polarities presented a geographical segregation according to size. Large eddies occur along the Agulhas Retroflection, the Agulhas Return Current, the Brazil-Malvinas Confluence and the Coral Sea. Small eddies occur in the systems southernmost domains. Understanding eddies' propagation helps to establish monitoring programs, and to better understand how these features would affect local mixing.

Description: We analyzed the ability of the Estimating the Circulation and Climate of the Ocean – Phase II (ECCO2) reanalysis to represent the hydrographic properties and variability of the Antarctic Bottom Water (AABW) in the Southern Ocean. We used a twenty-year observational database to perform comparisons of hydrographic properties and reanalysis data for the same time period (1992–2011). In addition, we evaluated four case studies based on current meter data and the AABW volume transport estimates previously reported in the literature. The main Southern Ocean oceanographic features, as well as the characteristic shape of the regional potential temperature–salinity (θ–S) diagrams, are adequately represented by the reanalysis. However, the opening of an oceanic polynya in the Weddell Sea Sector, which has been clearly visible since 2005, contributed to an unrealistic representation of the hydrographic properties of the Southern Ocean primarily after 2004. In this sense, our analyses focused on the period that was identified as more reliable (1992–2004). In general, the reanalysis data showed surface waters that were warmer, saltier, and denser than observations, which may have resulted from the absence of Ice Shelf Water and from the overestimation of sea ice concentrations that limit oceanic heat loss during austral winters. Intermediate waters were generally colder, fresher, and denser than observations, whereas deep waters were warmer and less dense. These differences in deep water properties were partially a result of the inability to reproduce the densest AABW variety by reanalysis for most of the analyzed period and also because of the model's relatively coarse vertical resolution. Despite differences in absolute values, the upper AABW limit (γn ≥ 28.27 kg m−3) and AABW occupied area were well represented in the WOCE repeat sections SR2 and SR4 for the studied periods. In section WOCE SR3, however, the estimates from the differences were not as well correlated, and the AABW layer thickness was underrepresented. The case studies showed a good representation of the AABW volume export and current velocity variability in the most important region of dense water export (i.e., the Weddell Sea). The exception is the AABW volume transport near the Kerguelen Plateau, in which the rugged local bathymetry and the relatively coarse model resolution hampered a fair representation of the transport variability by the reanalysis. Despite the consistency in terms of variability, absolute volume transport, and velocity, estimates were underrepresented in all cases. Moreover, the reanalysis was capable of reproducing the general variability pattern and trends of the AABW hydrographic properties reported by previous studies. Therefore, the ECCO2 data from the 1992–2004 period was considered adequate for investigating the circulation of the AABW and variability of the hydrographic properties, whereas data from the latter period (2005–2011) must be given careful attention.

Description: We assessed and evaluated the performance of five ocean reanalysis in reproducing essential hydrographic properties and their associated temporal variability for the Weddell Sea, Antarctica. The products used in this assessment were ECMWF ORAS4, CFSR, MyOcean UR025.4, ECCO2 and SODA. The present study focuses on the Weddell Sea deep layer, which is composed of the following three main water masses: Warm Deep Water (WDW), Weddell Sea Deep Water (WSDW) and Weddell Sea Bottom Water (WSBW). Moreover, all the ocean reanalysis products analyzed showed limited capabilities in representing the surface water masses in the Weddell Sea. The MyOcean UR025.4 product provided the most accurate representation of the structure of the Weddell Sea water masses when compared to observations. The CFSR and ECCO2 products were not able to represent the WSBW throughout the simulation period. The expected WDW warming was only reproduced by the SODA product, while the ECCO2 product was able to represent the WSDW's hydrographic properties trends. All of these ocean reanalysis systems were able to represent the decrease in the WSBW's density. Our results also showed that a simple increase in horizontal resolution does not necessarily imply better representation of the deep layers. Rather, it is needed to observe the physics involved in each model and their parameterizations because the Southern Ocean suffers from the lack of in situ data, and it is biased by summer observations. The choice of the reanalysis product should be made carefully, taking into account the performance, the parameters of interest, and the type of physical processes to be evaluated.

Description: We assessed and evaluated the performance of five ocean reanalysis products in reproducing essential hydrographic properties and their associated temporal variability for the Weddell Sea, Antarctica. The products used in this assessment were ECMWF ORAS4 (European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts Ocean Reanalysis System 4), CFSR (Climate Forecast System Reanalysis), MyOcean UR025.4 (University of Reading), ECCO2 (Estimating the Circulation and Climate of the Ocean, Phase II) and SODA (Simple Ocean Data Assimilation). The present study focuses on the Weddell Sea deep layer, which is composed of the following three main water masses: Warm Deep Water (WDW), Weddell Sea Deep Water (WSDW) and Weddell Sea Bottom Water (WSBW). The MyOcean UR025.4 product provided the most accurate representation of the structure and thermohaline properties of the Weddell Sea water masses when compared with observations. All the ocean reanalysis products analyzed exhibited limited capabilities in representing the surface water masses in the Weddell Sea. The CFSR and ECCO2 products were not able to represent deep water masses with a neutral density ≥ 28.40 kg m−3, which was considered the WSBW's upper limit throughout the simulation period. The expected WDW warming was only reproduced by the SODA product, whereas the ECCO2 product was able to represent the trends in the WSDW's hydrographic properties. All the assessed ocean reanalyses were able to represent the decrease in the WSBW's density, except the SODA product in the inner Weddell Sea. Improvements in parameterization may have as much impact on the reanalyses assessed as improvements in horizontal resolution primarily because the Southern Ocean lacks in situ data, and the data that are currently available are summer-biased. The choice of the reanalysis product should be made carefully, taking into account the performance, the parameters of interest, and the type of physical processes to be evaluated.