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  • 1
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Science Ltd
    Fatigue & fracture of engineering materials & structures 22 (1999), S. 0 
    ISSN: 1460-2695
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: The reliability of airworthiness assessment and the effective management of ageing fleets of aircraft depend critically on the quality of tools for predicting damage nucleation and accumulation and its detection, i.e. on the interrelationship between the probabilities of occurrence and detection. To illustrate these interrelationships, a mechanistically based probability approach involving localized pitting corrosion and subsequent fatigue cracking is presented. A probability of detection based on a typical state-of-the-art technique for non-destructive evaluation is used for comparison and probabilistic assessment. The results suggest that the probability of detection is inadequate, and information on damage size should be included as part of an effective airworthiness assurance methodology. An appropriate target for detecting and sizing damage of ≈ 0.10 mm with a probability of detection and a confidence level of at least 90% is suggested, versus the current capability of 1.27 mm at only 50%
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  • 2
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Science Ltd
    Fatigue & fracture of engineering materials & structures 25 (2002), S. 0 
    ISSN: 1460-2695
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: An essential aim for the study of fatigue cracking is the development of science-based methods for reliability and service life assessments as a part of the life-cycle design and management of engineered systems. In this context, a critical comparison between a mechanistically based probability and the more traditional, empirically based statistical approaches for reliability analysis and life prediction is presented. The comparison serves to highlight the need for quantitative, mechanistic understanding and modeling and for the adoption of a multidisciplinary approach. Current understanding of the influences of gaseous and aqueous environments on fatigue cracking, particularly with respect to the effects of frequency and temperature, is briefly summarized, and special considerations for fatigue at very high frequencies are discussed. The efficacy of the mechanistically based probability approach is illustrated through a comparison of the estimated and observed distribution of corrosion and corrosion fatigue damage in Boeing 707 aircraft that had been in commercial service for 24 years.
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  • 3
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Science Ltd
    Fatigue & fracture of engineering materials & structures 25 (2002), S. 0 
    ISSN: 1460-2695
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: The deleterious influence of atmospheric moisture on the fatigue properties of an aluminium wrought alloy AlZnMgCu1.5-T6, an aluminium cast alloy AlSi9Cu3 and magnesium cast alloys AM60 hp, AZ91 hp and AS21 hp has been studied at a cycling frequency of 20 kHz. Atmospheric moisture accelerates fatigue crack growth and decreases the threshold stress intensities to 55–75% of the respective values in vacuum. In ambient air, fatigue crack growth rates were up to two decades higher than those in vacuum. Accelerated crack growth was found at propagation rates below about 2 × 10−9 m cycle−1 in aluminium alloys and below about 3 × 10−8 m cycle−1 in magnesium alloys. As the threshold regime is approached, fatigue cracks in ambient air either propagate at a minimum mean growth rate on average of approximately one lattice spacing per cycle or they stop propagating, whereas mean growth rates of 10−12 m cycle−1 were found in vacuum. Crack initiation and slow fatigue crack growth mainly determine lifetimes in the high cycle regime, and endurance data obtained at ultrasonic frequency in ambient air of 40–60% relative humidity are similar to lifetimes measured at conventional frequencies.
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  • 4
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Science Ltd
    Fatigue & fracture of engineering materials & structures 24 (2001), S. 0 
    ISSN: 1460-2695
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: A plausible mechanistically based probability model for localized pitting corrosion and subsequent fatigue crack nucleation and growth is used to analyse tear-down inspection data from two retired B-707 aircraft that had been in commercial service for about 24 and 30 years. Sections of the left-hand lower wing skins from these aircraft had been previously disassembled and inspected optically at 20× magnification. The inspections were augmented by metallographic examinations for the lower time aircraft. The evolution of damage in the fastener holes is estimated by using reasonable values for the localized corrosion and fatigue crack growth rates, statistically estimated from laboratory data. The primary loading, assumed to be the mean design load, is considered to be from ground–air–ground wing bending cycles, augmented by ‘average’ gust loading, only. The encouraging agreement between the estimated probability of occurrence and the observed distribution of multiple hole–wall cracks attests to the efficacy of the approach and its relevancy to airworthiness assessment and fleet life management.
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  • 5
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Springer
    International journal of fracture 10 (1974), S. 77-85 
    ISSN: 1573-2673
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Description / Table of Contents: Résumé On a reconnu depuis quelque temps l'importance que revêt, pour une prédiction fiable de l'endurance en fatigue des éléments de construction, le ralentissement dans la vitesse de propagation des fissures de fatigue, résultant d'interaction des charges lorsque celles-ci sont d'amplitudes variables. Jusqu'à présent, seul un petit nombre de combinaisons de charges ou de spectres ont fait l'objet d'un examen systématique. Dans la présente étude, on a étudié les effets d'une gamme étendue de variations de la charge sur le retard à la propagation des fissures de fatigue à température ambiante, dans le cas d'un alliage Ti-6A1-4V recuit. Les résultats de cette étude sont appliqués à l'estimation de l'extension des fissures de fatigue sous des programmes collectifs de charges.
    Abstract: Zusammenfassung Die Wichtigkeit des Einflusses des Aufschiebung oder Verspätung der Ausdehnungsgeschwindigkeit eines Müdigkeitrisses, unter Belastung mit wechselnder Amplitude, durch gegenseitige Beeinflussung der Lasten, auf die genaue Voraussagung der Müdigkeitslebensdauer von Bauelementen ist seit einer gewissen Zeit gut bekannt. Bis jetzt wurden nur einige einfachen Belastungsfälle oder Kollektive systematisch untersucht. In diesem Bericht wird der Einfluss von einer grossen Anzahl Belastungsveränderlichen auf die Verspätung der Ausdehnungsge-schwindigkeit eines Müdigkeitrisses bei Zimmertemperatur untersucht, für einen geglühten Ti-6A1-4V legierten Stahl. Die Ergebnisse werden gebraucht um die Rissausdehnung unter einem Belastungskollektiv vorauszusagen.
    Notes: Abstract The importance of delay, or retardation in the rate of fatigue crack growth, produced by load interactions in variable amplitude loading on the accurate prediction of fatigue lives of engineering structures has been well recognized for some time. Heretofore, only a few simple loading combinations or spectra have been examined systematically. In this investigation the effects of a broad range of loading variables on delay in fatigue crack growth at room temperature are examined for a mill annealed Ti-6A1-4V alloy. The results are used to estimate crack growth behavior under programmed loads.
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  • 6
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Springer
    International journal of fracture 17 (1981), S. 235-247 
    ISSN: 1573-2673
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Description / Table of Contents: Résumé La fatigue des métaux a été reconnue comme une cause importante de rupture des structures métalliques. Dans la plupart des applications, le dommage par fatigue résulte de l'action conjointe d'une contrainte appliquée de manière cyclique et d'un environnement extérieur (chimique). Dès lors, elle dépend du temps. Il est essentiel de comprendre les interactions contrainte/environnement pour la formulation de procédure de prédiction de vie résiduelle et pour le développement d'évaluation et d'essai de qualification réaliste pour l'étude des matériaux. Les recherches entreprises au cours des 15 dernières années ont conduit à suggérer que la vitesse de propagation d'une fissure de fatigue dans un environnement agressif (da/dN) résulte de trois composants: la vitesse de propagation d'une fissure de fatigue dans un environnement inerte, qui représente la contribution de la fatigue pure, une composante dépendant de l'alternance et qui exprime l'interaction synergétique de la fatigue et de l'attaque provoquée par l'environnement, et une contribution d'une croissance de fissure sous charge constante (c.à.d. fissuration sous corrosion sous tension) à un niveau K supérieur à K Isc. Les études récentes de mécanique de rupture et de chimie de surface ont fourni une compréhension plus claire du terme dépendant de l'alternance et dés lors, une explication plus compllète de la croissance d'une fissure de fatigue en présence d'un environnement. La composante dépendant de l'alternance résulte de la réaction de l'environnement à une surface de fissuration fraiche produite par la fatigue et est fonction de l'étendue de la réaction au cours d'un seul cycle de sollicitation. Dans le cas de systèmes alliage-environnement hautement réactifs, cette contribution dépend également de la vitesse de transport de l'environnement agressif à l'extrémité de la fissure. La base expérimentale et le développement de modèles pour le transport et la croissance d'une fissure de fatigue contrôlée sous l'effet des réactions de surface ont été passés en revue. Une interprétation des effets d'une pression partielle de l'environnement agressif ainsi que de la fréquence des cycles de sollicitation est discutée en terme de réactions de surface et de processus de transfert. Les implications que ces conclusions présentent sur la performance en service et les procédures de prédiction de vue sont discutées.
    Notes: Abstract Metal fatigue has been well recognized as an important cause for failure of engineering structures. In most applications, fatigue damage results from the conjoint actions of the cyclically applied stress and the external (chemical) environment, and is therefore time dependent. Understanding of this load-environment interaction is essential to the formulation of rational life prediction procedures and to the development of realistic materials evaluation and qualification tests. Research over the past 15 years has led to the suggestion that the rate of fatigue crack growth in an aggressive environment, (da/dN)e, is the sum of three components—the rate of fatigue crack growth in an inert environment, (da/dN)r, which represents the contribution of “pure” fatigue, a cycle-dependent component, (da/dN)cf, that requires the synergistic interaction of fatigue and environmental attack, and the contribution by sustained-load crack growth (i.e., stress corrosion cracking) at K levels above K Iscc, (da/dN)scc. Recent fracture mechanics and surface chemistry studies have provided a clearer understanding of the cycle-dependent term, and, hence, a more complete understanding of environment assisted fatigue crack growth. (da/dN)cf results from the reaction of the environment with fresh crack surfaces produced by fatigue, and is a function of the extent of reaction during one loading cycle. For highly reactive alloy-environment systems, this contribution depends also on the rate of transport of the aggressive environment to the crack tip. The experimental basis and the development of models for transport and surface reaction controlled fatigue crack growth are reviewed. Interpretation of the effects of partial pressure of the aggressive environment and cyclic load frequency in terms of surface reaction and transport processes is discussed. Implications in terms of service performance and life prediction procedures are considered.
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  • 7
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Springer
    International journal of fracture 13 (1977), S. 105-106 
    ISSN: 1573-2673
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
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  • 8
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Springer
    Theoretical and applied genetics 91 (1995), S. 389-394 
    ISSN: 1432-2242
    Keywords: Breeding population ; Phenotypic selection ; Genetic gain ; Inbreeding ; Effective size
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Abstract Phenotypic selection is modified by introducing upper limits on the portion (P 1) of individuals selected from a family as well as on the portion (P 2) of family number that are allowed to contribute. At a preset selection proportion, P and P 1, the maximum genetic gain is obtained by finding an optimum restriction on family number (P 2 * ). A numerical procedure for solving the problem of optimization is developed for infinite populations. In small populations, maximum gain and P 2 * can be found by simply comparing all possible P2. Numerical examples are demonstrated for infinite breeding populations, assuming a normally-distributed family mean and within-family deviation. Selection and its simulation were applied to the fieldtest results of two tree species. Optimum restriction on family number is very close to P/P 1, especially when heritability is low. In the real world of tree breeding, P 2 * is given, or approximated, by P/P 1+1/ tm where m is the initial family number. The improvement of gain and the conservation of inbreeding effective population size are easy with high heritability and could be simultaneously obtained by using intense selection with a relatively low P 1.
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  • 9
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Springer
    Experimental mechanics 16 (1976), S. 241-248 
    ISSN: 1741-2765
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Notes: Abstract The use of holographic interferometry for stress analysis of nontransparent objects is limited by rigid-body displacements of the object. These displacements can alter the fringe patterns and often cause the fringes to disappear completely. A technique of compensation for this deterioration of the fringe pattern forreal-time holographic interferometry is described in this paper. It is especially designed to permit the accurate measurement of the out-of-plane component of strain near regions of stress concentration in plates that are subjected to in-plane loading. It is first shown that the fringes caused by a pure rigid-body displacement can be eliminated almost completely by translations of the hologram and rotation of the illumination wave. This procedure is first described when the displacement is known; then when it is unknown. A method to estimate the error made in the correction is presented. In actual stress-analysis problems, the object is both rigidly displaced and strained. Assuming the rigid displacement is known and corrected as previously, the analysis is developed to relate the fringe pattern to the strain-related displacement. This analysis takes into account the optical modifications of the system that are necessary to achieve the rigid-body-displacement correction. When the rigid-body displacement is unknown, the method is shown still to be workable through the use of various symmetries and boundary conditions. Two sample interferograms are presented as illustrations. Quantitative treatment of data from one of these are presented in a companion paper.
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  • 10
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Springer
    International journal of fracture 4 (1968), S. 159-168 
    ISSN: 1573-2673
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
    Description / Table of Contents: Résumé Des essais de propagation de fissures de fatigue ont été effectués pour étudier l'influence de l'eau et de ses composants sur le taux de croissance des fissures dans un alliage d'aluminium à haute résistance, entre 295 et 380°K. L'atmosphère de référence est obtenue au moyen d'argon sec (99.9995 %). L'eau accélère le taux de propagation par un factueur de 10 dans cette gamme de températures, l'influence de l'oxygène sec et de l'hydrogène sec étant négligeables. Nos essais confirment les résultats de Hartman, et Bradshaw & Wheeler; ils indiquent que la formation d'hydrogène gazeux à haute pression dans la région précédant immédiatement l'extrémité de la fissure cause la forte argumentation du taux de fissuration, comme suggéré par Broom & Nicholson. La propagation des fissures de fatigue dans l'eau et aussi en atmosphère sèche est contrölée par des processus activés thermiquement avec des énergies apparentes d'activation dépendent fortement de ΔK. Entre 2,5 10−6 et 2,5 10−5 cm par période, le processus de contrôle parait être lie à la formation de nouvelles surfaces de fissures. Une étude approfondie de la einétique et des lois de croissance des fissures de fatigue semble indiquée par la forte influence de ΔK sur l'énergie apparente d'activation. Les variables méchaniques et chimiques devraient être incorporées à cette étude.
    Abstract: Zusammenfassung Untersuchungen über die Bruchausbreitung beim Ermüdungsbruch wurden im Rahmen der linearelastischen Bruchtheorien ausgeführt, um den Einfluss von Wasser and seinen Komponenten auf die Bruchausbreitung pro Periode in einer hochfesten Aluminiumlegierung über einen Temperaturbereich von 295° bis 380°K zu prüfen. Getrocknetes, hochreines Argon (Reinheitsgrad: 99.9995%) wurde als träges Referenzgas benutzt. Die Resultate zeigten, dass Wasser die Ausbreitungsgeschwindigkeit des Fatiguebruchs innerhalb dieses Temperaturbereichs etwa um einen Faktor 10 heraufsetzte,während trockener Sauerstoff undtrockener Wasserstoff einen vernachlissigbaren Einfluss hatten. Dieses bestätigt die Ergebnisse von Hartman, and von Bradshaw and Wheeler, dass die Ursache (wie von Broom and Nicholson vermutet wird für das starke Anwachsen der Bruchgeschwindigkeit) die Bildungvon Wasserstoffgas bei hohem Druck in dem Gebiet vor der Rissspitze ist. Die Ergebnisse zeigten weiter, dass die Fatiguebruchausbreitung in Wasser ebenso wie in trockener Umgebung durch thermisch aktivierte Prozesse kontrolliert wird, mit einer auftretenden Aktivierungsenergie, die streng von dem Spansungsfaktor ΔK and der Rissspitze abhängt. In einer Bereich von 2.5 × 10−6 nis 2.5 × 10−5 em pro Periode scheint der Steuervorgang für die Bruchausbreitung von der Art zu sein, dass er mit der Bildung von neuen Bruchflächen verbunden ist. Die strenge Abhängigkeit der auftretenden Aktivierungsenergie von ΔK legt eine sorgfältige Untersuchung der Kinetik der Fatiguebruchausbreitung and der Bruchausbreitungsgesetze nahe. Solch eine Untersuchung sollte sowohl die mechanischen als auch die chemischen Parameter berücksichtigen.
    Notes: Abstract Fatigue-crack propagation experiments were carried out within the framework of linear-elastic fracture mechanics to examine the effect of water and its constituents on the rate of crack growth in a high-strength aluminum alloy over a range of test temperatures from 295 to 380° K. Dehumidified high-purity (99.9995 percent purity) argon was used as an inert reference environment. The results showed that water accelerated the rate of fatigue-crack propagation by about a factor of 10 in this temperature range, whereas dry oxygen and dry hydrogen had a negligible effect. They confirm the findings of Hartman, and Bradshaw and Wheeler that the cause for the large increase in the rate of crack growth is the formation of hydrogen gas at high pressure in the region ahead of the crack tip, driven in by the reaction of water with the-freshly created aluminum crack surfaces, as suggested by Broom and Nicholson. The results showed further that fatigue-crack propagation in water, as well as in the dry environments, is controlled by thermally activated processes, with apparent activation energies that depend strongly on the crack-tip stress-intensity parameter, ΔK. The rate controlling process appears to be that associated with the creation of new crack surfaces in the range of crack growth rates 10−6 to 10−5 inch per cycle. The strong dependence of the apparent activation energy on ΔK suggests that a careful study of the kinetics of fatigue-crack growth and of the crack growth laws is in order. Such a study should incorporate both the mechanical and chemical variables involved.
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