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  • 1
    ISSN: 0887-6266
    Keywords: poly(chlorotrifluoroethylene) ; self-orientation ; anisotropic ; annealing ; Chemistry ; Polymer and Materials Science
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Physics
    Notes: A peculiar phenomenon is reported whereby a melt-extruded, low-crystallinity, unoriented film of poly(chlorotrifluoroethylene) upon unconstrained thermal treatment, self-extends in the machine direction (MD) while shrinking along the transverse (TD) and normal/thickness (ND) directions. In addition to the expected increase in crystallinity, the annealing process leads to an unexpected development of crystalline orientation along the MD. This phenomenon is an example of “processing-induced memory effects” since it depends on the processing history of the starting film, e.g., melt-extrusion leads to the subject behavior whereas compression molding does not. We must mention that the melt-extruded films of poly(chlorotrifluoroethylene) are isotropic to start with, that is, MD and TD are indistinguishable prior to the annealing process. Furthermore, this phenomenon has not been observed for any other semicrystalline polymer and is believed to be the first citation for poly(chlorotrifluoroethylene) since its commercialization in 1957. Thermomechanical analysis (TMA) is the analytical technique that led to this novel phenomenon which was later substantiated by x-ray diffraction (XRD). ©1995 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
    Additional Material: 11 Ill.
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  • 2
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Bognor Regis [u.a.] : Wiley-Blackwell
    Journal of Polymer Science Part B: Polymer Physics 35 (1997), S. 2219-2231 
    ISSN: 0887-6266
    Keywords: nylons ; crystallinity ; DSC ; x-ray diffraction ; complications ; Physics ; Polymer and Materials Science
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Physics
    Notes: Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) is one of the most widely used technique for measuring crystallinity in the polymer industry. The major source of error in the crystalline index (CIDSC) of low crystallinity polymeric articles, is the development of further crystallinity during the DSC scan. Although, this type of cold crystallization is obvious, and thus accounted for in polymers like polyethylene terephthalate, nylons are a difficult class of materials in that respect. The major contributing factors to the failure of DSC in measuring low levels of crystallinity in nylons are identified to be (1) silent crystallization between the glass (Tg) and melting (Tm) transitions, (2) extreme difficulties in packing a moisture-free nylon in the sample pan (the response due to traces of moisture being a broad endotherm competing with a broad exothermic crystallization), and (3) a sub-Tm exotherm, especially in low crystallinity nylons, due to relaxation of the processing-induced stresses. These factors, specific to nylons, mask the observation of cold crystallization and lead to substantially higher than real crystallinities. This manuscript deals with such complications and corrective actions using commercial nylon 6 films of CIDSC = 0-40%. X-ray diffraction measurements have been included to support the validity of our improved DSC methodology. © 1997 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. J Polym Sci B: Polym Phys 35: 2219-2231, 1997
    Additional Material: 9 Ill.
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  • 3
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Hoboken, NJ : Wiley-Blackwell
    Journal of Polymer Science 5 (1950), S. 283-300 
    ISSN: 0022-3832
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Polymer and Materials Science
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Physics
    Additional Material: 8 Ill.
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  • 4
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Hoboken, NJ : Wiley-Blackwell
    Journal of Polymer Science 13 (1954), S. 21-42 
    ISSN: 0022-3832
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Polymer and Materials Science
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Physics
    Notes: The phases which are formed at, e.g., 22°C., when a solution containing, e.g., 1.1% polystyrene and 1.7% ethyl cellulose is made in benzene, are characterized by having a low interfacial tension (⋍10-3 erg/cm.2), which permits droplets of the one phase in the other to be easily deformed and disrupted in a field of flow. The size and shape of the droplets thus formed were determined by an optical method depending upon the statistical addition of the deflections suffered by a beam of light in its passage through the medium. It is found that at intermediate velocity gradients very small and extremely elongated droplets are stable and that, at a given temperature, the phase separation can be reversed by raising the velocity gradient above a definite value. A full discussion of the observations is given and it is shown in particular that the appearance of extremely elongated drops at certain velocity gradients is due to a stationary state equilibrium between processes causing the drops to break up and others causing them to recombine again. The superposition of break-up and recombination is thus responsible for the existence in practice of inherently unstable drop shapes.
    Additional Material: 10 Ill.
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  • 5
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Hoboken, NJ : Wiley-Blackwell
    Journal of Polymer Science 16 (1955), S. 539-548 
    ISSN: 0022-3832
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Polymer and Materials Science
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Physics
    Notes: Weakly vulcanized rubber swollen in benzene for one or several days forms a gel whose freezing point is about 5°C. lower than the freezing point of the solvent with which the gel is in equilibrium. This anomaly of the freezing point depression is to be explained by the three-dimensional network present in the gel, which mechanically prevents the formation of macroscopic crystals. The phenomena observed in the benzene system are compared with similar observations made recently in the case of aqueous gels of polyvinyl alcohol and polyacrylic acid. The benzene system differs from the aqueous system in that an undercooling is observed in the benzene system as well for the formation of crystals outside at the surface of the gel as for the formation of crystals inside the gel. Furthermore, in the case of the benzene system at temperatures below the freezing point of pure benzene a transport of solvent from the inside to the outside of the gel takes place, i.e. a freeze-drying of the gel is observed. These differences in the behavior of the aqueous and benzene systems are understood as being due to the volume dilation connected with the crystallization of water and the volume contraction occurring in the case of crystallization of benzene. The anomaly of the freezing point depression is a means of characterizing the width of ultramicroscopic structures present in high polymer, essentially also in biological systems.
    Additional Material: 3 Ill.
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  • 6
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    New York : Wiley-Blackwell
    Die Makromolekulare Chemie 35 (1960), S. 147-148 
    ISSN: 0025-116X
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Polymer and Materials Science
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Physics
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  • 7
    ISSN: 0025-116X
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Polymer and Materials Science
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Physics
    Additional Material: 1 Tab.
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  • 8
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Hoboken, NJ : Wiley-Blackwell
    Journal of Polymer Science 14 (1954), S. 193-208 
    ISSN: 0022-3832
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Polymer and Materials Science
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Physics
    Notes: For the description of the practical properties of a large number of linear polymer molecules as well as for the discussion of the various mean parameters of the individual chain molecule, the model usually employed to represent the molecule consists of N m straight line chain elements of length A m statistically joined to each other (straight element model). For the construction of large-scale wire models of polymer molecules to be used in model experiments on the hydrodynamic behavior of chain molecules, a somewhat different model (circular segment model) was employed in previous papers. In these papers the relationships connecting the parameters which characterize these two models respectively have been determined on the basis of certain assumptions. These assumptions, as has recently been shown, were however partly in error and certain corrections have now to be applied to the numerical constants which appear in previously published formulas for the diffusion and sedimentation constants and for the intrinsic viscosity and streaming birefringence. The formulas, resulting after these corrections have been incorporated, are compiled in the present paper and the effect of these corrections on the interpretation of both new and old experimental results is discussed. It is found that agreement between theory and experiment is improved by the use of the corrected expressions and that in particular certain discrepancies which had previously existed between the lengths A m of the statistical chain element as calculated from sedimentation and diffusion experiments, on the one hand, and viscosity determinations on the other, disappear after these corrections are applied (see Table I).
    Additional Material: 3 Ill.
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  • 9
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    New York : Wiley-Blackwell
    Die Makromolekulare Chemie 6 (1951), S. 224-242 
    ISSN: 0025-116X
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Polymer and Materials Science
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Physics
    Description / Table of Contents: If a sample of a highly elastic material is rapidly extended and then held at constant length, a force tending to restore it to its original condition will be observed between its ends. This force is a t its largest immediatly after the sample was extended and then begins to decrease, at first rapidly, but afterwards more slowly, until finally it reaches a practically constant value, or vanishes completely.The decrease of the restoring force in the course of time can be formally represented by assuming the existence in the material of a large number of cohesional mechanisms having different discrete relaxation times or even a continuous relaxation time spectrum. The relaxation time spectrum can be calculated from the observed time rate of decline of the modulus of elasticity, either by using the experimented values directly, or by employing the relevant empirical formula. A practical calculation of this kind has been performed in the case of rubber.The knowledge of the relaxation time spectrum of a material permits the description of its entire viscoelastic behaviour. In the case of rubber, for example, the relaxation time spectrum yields the important fact, that in the case of a periodically varying strain the angle of loss is practically independent of the frequency. From this as further conclusion there emerges the fact, that in the case of periodic deformations, the sample cannot be thought of as having a viscosity in the usual sense, but rather a viscosity, which increases in proportion to the duration of a cycle (a period) of the deformation.In terms of a model the existence of a relaxation time spectrum with relaxation times between 10-2 〈 τ 〈 105 secs. can in the case of a lightly vulcanized rubber be interpreted as being due to the fact, that simultaneously with the affine transformation, which the chemical vulcanization points undergo upon rapid extension, there are also shorter portions of the main, not bounded by chemical cross-linkages, whose ends perform an exactly similar transformation, e. g. an extension. Such chain segments can return from the improbable condition, into which they are moved by the extension, to a more probable configuration, but require time to do so. If the restoring force is therefore measured, before such short segments had time to alter their constellation, a correspondingly larger value of the force is determined. A certain segment length is in other words characteristic for the restoring force at any given instant t and the molecular weight Mf, of the segments, which are on the point of relaxing, is therefore (see equation 10) found to depend on the time.An estimate of the time t required by a network segment, whose ends are not bounded by chemical Vulcanization points, to change its constellation, is given. Applying this result to the available experimental data the conclusion is reached, that the viscosity of the embedding medium (i. e. the rubber) increases rapidly as the molecular weight Mf of the moving chain segment increases. Such a steep rise of the effective η value of rubber with increasing molecular weight of the diffusing substance has actually been demonstrated experimentally (in particular by F. Grün), and the viscosity values calculated for rubber on this basis agree approximately with the values obtained at corresponding molecular weight from the relaxation time spectrum.
    Notes: Wenn ein hochelastischer Stoff rasch gedehnt und dann auf konstanter Länge gehalten wird, so beobachtet man eine Rückstellkraft, welche unmittelbar nach erfolgter Dehnung am größten ist und welche dann anfangs rasch, später langsamer auf einen praktisch konstanten Wert oder auch auf Null absinkt.Der zeitliche Abfall der Rückstellkraft kann formal durch das Vorliegen einer Vielzahl von Zusammenhaltsmechanismen mit verschiedenen Relaxationszeiten bzw. durch das Vorliegen eines kontinuierlichen Relaxationszeitspektrums gedeutet werden. Das Relaxationszeitspektrum kann aus dem beobachteten oder durch eine Formel dargestellten zeitlichen Abfall des Elastizitätsmoduls durch Rechnung gewonnen werden, eine Berechnung, welche für den Fall von Kautschuk praktisch durchgeführt worden ist.Die Kenntnis des Relaxationszeitspektrums gestattet, das gesamte viskos-elastische Verhalten einer Substanz zu beschreiben. Im Falle von Kautschuk ergibt sich z. B. aus dem Relaxationszeitspektrum die wichtige Tatsache, daß bei periodischer Beanspruchung der Verlustwinkel von der Frequenz praktisch nicht abhängt, bzw. die Tatsache, daß der Versuchskörper bei periodischer Verformung nicht eine Viskosität schlechthin, sondern eine Viskosität aufweist, welche proportional der Schwingungsdauer (Periode) der Verformung zunimmt.Modellmäßig läßt sich das Auftreten des Relaxationszeitspektrums dadurch deuten. daß das Relaxationszeitspektrum von schwach vulkanisiertem Kautschuk im Bereich 10-2 〈 τ 〈 105 sec. damit in Zusammenhang gebracht wird, daß bei rascher Dehnung des Versuchskörpers nicht nur die Lage der chemischen Vulkanisierungspunkte eine affine Transformation erfährt, sondern daß auch kürzere, nicht durch chemische Vulkanisierungspunkte begrenzte Fadenstücke eine ähnliche Transformation, z. B. Streckung. erfahren. Solche Fadenstücke können aus dem durch die rasche Dehnung erzeugten unwahrscheinlichen Zustande in einen wahrscheinlicheren Zustand zurückkehren, benötigen aber hierfür Zeit. Wird die Rückstellkraft festgestellt, bevor solche kurzen Stücke ihre Konstellation geändert haben, so wird eine entsprechend größere Rückstellkraft festgestellt. Daher wird das für die Größe der Rückstellkraft maßgebende Netzbogengewicht Mf in Gleichung (10) von der Zeit abhängig.Die Zeit t, welche ein Netzbogen, dessen Enden nicht durch Vulkanisationspunkte begrenzt sind, benötigt, um seine Konstellation zu ändern, wird abgeschätzt. Dabei zeigt sich, daß die experimentellen Befunde in der Weise gedeutet werden müssen, daß die Viskosität, welche das Einbettungsmedium Kautschuk der Bewegung von Fadenteilen vom Molgewicht Mf, entgegensetzt, mit steigendem Molgewicht rasch zunimmt. Eine solche Zunahme von η mit dem Molgewicht von im Kautschuk diffundierenden Substanzen ist experimentell tatsächlich beobachtet worden (insbesondere von F. Grün), wobei die Zahlenwerte der zu fordernden η-Werte mit dem auf Grund des Relaxationszeitspektrums geforderten Werten ungefähr übereinstimmen.
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  • 10
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    New York : Wiley-Blackwell
    Journal of Polymer Science Part A: General Papers 1 (1963), S. 151-158 
    ISSN: 0449-2951
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Polymer and Materials Science
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Physics
    Notes: From a measurement of the dielectric increment of methylcellulose in water, including the frequency dependence of this increment, the dielectric relaxation time spectrum has been determined and represented quantitatively by a formula containing three parameters τor, νAh, and θq, each of which can be obtained from earlier published viscosity and birefringence of flow data. On the basis of this relaxation time spectrum, the Cole-Cole diagram of the aqueous solution of methylcellulose can be drawn. It is found that this diagram is dissymmetrical, i.e., different in shape from a circle or part of a circle; the circular form of the Cole-Cole diagram is thus not a general phenomenon, even if it is realized in many cases.
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