ALBERT

Description: High-temperature (〉300 °C) off-axis hydrothermal systems found along the slow-spreading Mid-Atlantic Ridge are apparently consistently located at outcropping fault zones. While preferential flow of hot fluids along highly permeable, fractured rocks seems intuitive, such efficient flow inevitably leads to the entrainment of cold ambient seawater. The temperature drop this should cause is difficult to reconcile with the observed high-temperature black smoker activity and formation of associated massive sulfide ore deposits. Here we combine newly acquired seismological data from the high-temperature, off-axis Logatchev 1 hydrothermal field (LHF1) with numerical modeling of hydrothermal flow to solve this apparent contradiction. The data show intense off-axis seismicity with focal mechanisms suggesting a fault zone dipping from LHF1 toward the ridge axis. Our simulations predict high-temperature venting at LHF1 only for a limited range of fault widths and permeability contrasts, expressed as the fault's relative transmissibility (the product of the two parameters). The relative transmissibility must be sufficient to "capture" a rising hydrothermal plume and redirect it toward LHF1 but low enough to prevent extensive mixing with ambient cold fluids. Furthermore, the temperature drop associated with any high permeability zone in heterogeneous crust may explain why a significant part of hydrothermal discharge along slow-spreading ridges occurs at low temperatures.

Description: Erdgas und Erdöl werden schon seit Jahrzehnten aus den Ozeanen gewonnen. An den Erz- und Mineralienvorkommen am Meeresgrund hingegen bestand bislang wenig Interesse. Doch durch die steigenden Rohstoffpreise wird der Meeresbergbau jetzt interessant. So wird erwartet, dass die Ernte von Massivsulfiden und Manganknollen schon in wenigen Jahren beginnt.

Description: During opening of a new ocean magma intrudes into the surrounding sedimentary basins. Heat provided by the intrusions matures the host rock creating metamorphic aureoles potentially releasing large amounts of hydrocarbons. These hydrocarbons may migrate to the seafloor in hydrothermal vent complexes in sufficient volumes to trigger global warming, e.g. during the Paleocene Eocene Thermal Maximum (PETM). Mound structures at the top of buried hydrothermal vent complexes observed in seismic data off Norway were previously interpreted as mud volcanoes and the amount of released hydrocarbon was estimated based on this interpretation. Here, we present new geophysical and geochemical data from the Gulf of California suggesting that such mound structures could in fact be edifices constructed by the growth of black-smoker type chimneys rather than mud volcanoes. We have evidence for two buried and one active hydrothermal vent system outside the rift axis. The vent releases several hundred degrees Celsius hot fluids containing abundant methane, mid-ocean-ridge-basalt (MORB)-type helium, and precipitating solids up to 300 m high into the water column. Our observations challenge the idea that methane is emitted slowly from rift-related vents. The association of large amounts of methane with hydrothermal fluids that enter the water column at high pressure and temperature provides an efficient mechanism to transport hydrocarbons into the water column and atmosphere, lending support to the hypothesis that rapid climate change such as during the PETM can be triggered by magmatic intrusions into organic-rich sedimentary basins.

Description: A 1:1,000,000-scale lithostratigraphic assemblage map of the Lau Basin (southwestern Pacific Ocean) has been created using remote predictive mapping (RPM) techniques developed by geological surveys on land. Formation-level geological units were identified in training sets at scales of 1:100,000–1:200,000 in different parts of the basin and then extrapolated to the areas where geological data are sparse. The final compilation is presented together with a quantitative analysis of assemblage-level crustal growth based on area-age relationships of the assigned units. The data sets used to develop mapping criteria and an internally consistent legend for the compilation included high-resolution ship-based multibeam, satellite- and ship-based gravity, magnetics, seafloor imaging, and sampling data. The correlation of units was informed by published geochronological information and kinematic models of basin opening. The map covers 〉1,000,000 km2 of the Lau-Tonga arc-backarc system, subdivided into nine assemblage types: forearc crust (9% by area), crust of the active volcanic arc (7%), backarc rifts and spreading centers (20%), transitional arc-backarc crust (13%), relict arc crust (38%), relict backarc crust (8%), and undivided arc-backarc assemblages (〈5%), plus oceanic assemblages, intraplate volcanoes, and carbonate platforms. Major differences in the proportions of assemblage types compared to other intraoceanic subduction systems (e.g., Mariana backarc, North Fiji Basin) underscore the complex geological makeup of the Lau Basin. Backarc crust formed and is forming simultaneously at 12 different locations in the basin in response to widely distributed extension, and this is considered to be a dominant pattern of crustal accretion in large arc-backarc systems. Accelerated basin opening and a microplate breakout north of the Peggy Ridge has been accommodated by seven different spreading centers. The result is an intricate mosaic of small intact assemblages in the north of the basin, compared to fewer and larger assemblages in the south. Although the oldest rocks are Eocene (~40 m.y. old basement of the Lau and Tonga Ridges), half of the backarc crust in the map area formed within the last 3 m.y. and therefore represents some of the fastest growing crust on Earth, associated with prolific magmatic and hydro-thermal activity. These observations provide important clues to the geological evolution and makeup of ancient backarc basins and to processes of crustal growth that ultimately lead to the emergence of continents.

Description: Die dritte Ausgabe des „World Ocean Review“ widmet sich den metallischen und energetischen Ressourcen des Meeres und ihrer Nutzung. Er liefert Fakten über den Abbau der bekannten Öl- und Gasvorkommen unterhalb des Meeresbodens und beleuchtet die Auswirkungen auf Flora und Fauna. Er erklärt die Entstehung und Potenziale der Gashydratvorkommen an den Kontinentalrändern und liefert detaillierte Informationen über Chancen und Risiken der Nutzung mineralischer Rohstoffe: Manganknollen, Kobaltkrusten und Massivsulfide.

Description: The third issue of the World Ocean Review, WOR 3, is devoted to marine resources – metals and energy – and their utilization. It gives the facts about the extraction of known oil and gas deposits below the ocean floor and examines the impacts upon flora and fauna. It explains how gas hydrates form on continental shelves and what potential they hold. The review further explores in detail the opportunities and risks presented and posed by extracting mineral resources from the seabed: manganese nodules, cobalt crusts and massive sulphides.