ALBERT

Description: The present study evaluates the capacity of the Boom Clay as a host rock for disposal purposes, more precisely its seismic characterization, which may assess its long-term performance to store radioactive wastes. Although the formation is relatively uniform and homogeneous, there are embedded thin layers of septaria (carbonates) that may affect the integrity of the Boom Clay. Therefore, it is essential to locate these geobodies. The seismic data to characterize the Boom Clay has been acquired at the Kruibeke test site. The inversion, which allowed us to obtain the anisotropy parameters and seismic velocities of the clay, is complemented with further information such as log and laboratory data. The attenuation properties have been estimated from equivalent formations (having similar composition and seismic velocities). The inversion yields quite consistent results although the symmetry of the medium is unusual but physically possible, since the anisotropy parameter is negative. According to a time-domain calculation of the energy velocity at four frequency bands up to 900 Hz, velocity increases with frequency, a behaviour described by the Zener model. Then, we use this model to describe anisotropy and anelasticity that are implemented into the equation of motion to compute synthetic seismograms in the space–time domain. The technique is based on memory variables and the Fourier pseudospectral method. We have computed reflection coefficients of the septaria thin layer. At normal incidence, the P -wave coefficient vanishes at specific thicknesses of the layer and there is no conversion to the S wave. For example, calculations at 600 Hz show that for thicknesses of 1 m the septarium can be detected more easily since the amplitudes are higher (nearly 0.8). Converted PS waves have a high amplitude at large offsets (between 30° and 80°) and can be useful to identify the target on this basis. Moreover, we have investigated the effect of septaria embedded in the Boom Clay with several simulations, by considering a lateral partial continuity of the calcareous thin inclusions. The simulations with layers of calcareous material show continuity of the reflections even when the percentage of carbonate within the layer is very small (5–15 per cent), while for low content of the calcareous material, isolated septaria boulders generate diffraction events. We have also simulated the stacked seismic section obtained from processing of the field data. The matching between the field and synthetic sections is acceptable.

Description: We investigate the relationship between subduction processes and related seismicity for the Lesser Antilles Arc using the Gutenberg–Richter law. This power law describes the earthquake-magnitude distribution, with the gradient of the cumulative magnitude distribution being commonly known as the b -value. The Lesser Antilles Arc was chosen because of its along-strike variability in sediment subduction and the transition from subduction to strike-slip movement towards its northern and southern ends. The data are derived from the seismicity catalogues from the Seismic Research Centre of The University of the West Indies and the Observatoires Volcanologiques et Sismologiques of the Institut de Physique du Globe de Paris and consist of subcrustal events primarily from the slab interface. The b -value is found using a Kolmogorov–Smirnov test for a maximum-likelihood straight line-fitting routine. We investigate spatial variations in b -values using a grid-search with circular cells as well as an along-arc projection. Tests with different algorithms and the two independent earthquake cataloges provide confidence in the robustness of our results. We observe a strong spatial variability of the b -value that cannot be explained by the uncertainties. Rather than obtaining a simple north–south b -value distribution suggestive of the dominant control on earthquake triggering being water released from the sedimentary cover on the incoming American Plates, or a b -value distribution that correlates with on the obliquity of subduction, we obtain a series of discrete, high b -value ‘bull's-eyes’ along strike. These bull's-eyes, which indicate stress release through a higher fraction of small earthquakes, coincide with the locations of known incoming oceanic fracture zones on the American Plates. We interpret the results in terms of water being delivered to the Lesser Antilles subduction zone in the vicinity of fracture zones providing lubrication and thus changing the character of the related seismicity. Our results suggest serpentinization around mid-ocean ridge transform faults, which go on to become fracture zones on the incoming plate, plays a significant role in the delivery of water into the mantle at subduction zones.

Description: The Borborema province in NE Brazil is characterized by seismic sequences with small earthquakes that can last 10 yr or more. The seismicity in this region is concentrated in three main seismic zones. In this work, we investigate the stress field in one of these zones, the Acaraú Seismic Zone, which is located in the NW part of the Borborema province. This seismic zone exhibits earthquake sequences that contain repeated earthquakes with similar waveforms and a shallow depth. Using a local network, we investigated a seismic sequence close to the town of Santana do Acaraú from December 2009 to December 2010, and we present detailed results (velocity model, hypocentres and focal mechanism) from this network. In addition, we inverted seven focal mechanisms, including six that were used in previous studies, and determined the directions of the three main axes of the regional stress field. Selecting a very precise set of 12 earthquakes, we found an active seismic zone with a depth between 3.5 and 4.8 km and with a horizontal dimension of approximately 2.5 km in the NW–SE direction (azimuth of 118°) and a strike-slip focal mechanism. The new seismic fault and some of the previous seismic faults determined in previous studies occur near the continental-scale Transbrasiliano lineament, but they exhibit no direct relationship with that ancient structure. The stress field is characterized by NW–SE trending compression and NE–SW trending extension. This result suggests that the rheological contrast between the continental–oceanic crusts created flexural stresses with maximum horizontal compression parallel to the continental margin. This stress pattern occurs along the Potiguar basin and continues west as far as the Amazon fan along the Equatorial margin of Brazil. This stress field and related seismicity may be a characteristic of this type of passive margin that is generated during the transform shearing between the South America and Africa plates and that exhibits an abrupt oceanic–continent transition, steep continental slopes and high bathymetric gradients.

Description: Near-surface seismic field experiments using both P - and S -wave sources were carried out to image fractured limestones at two sites in southwest England. We measured P - and S -wave seismic velocities at multiple azimuths to aligned fracture sets, allowing us to determine the seismic anisotropy generated by these fractures. The effect of aligned fractures on seismic anisotropy is commonly modelled in terms of the additional compliance introduced by the fractures. Therefore, an understanding of fracture compliance is crucial both in terms of interpreting observations of anisotropy in the field and in forward modelling the effects of fractures on seismic wave propagation. Of particular concern is (1) the scaling of fracture compliance with fracture length scale, and (2) the controls on the ratio of normal to tangential compliance of the fractures (  =  Z N /Z T ). Our experimental design allows us to image both, and we find that  = 0.37 ± 0.06 and  = 0.75 ± 0.10 for our two study sites, while the absolute values of the tangential compliance range from 0.66  x  10 –11 to 5.0  x  10 –11 Pa –1  m.

Description: The Borborema province in NE Brazil is characterized by seismic sequences with small earthquakes that can last 10 yr or more. The seismicity in this region is concentrated in three main seismic zones. In this work, we investigate the stress field in one of these zones, the Acaraú Seismic Zone, which is located in the NW part of the Borborema province. This seismic zone exhibits earthquake sequences that contain repeated earthquakes with similar waveforms and a shallow depth. Using a local network, we investigated a seismic sequence close to the town of Santana do Acaraú from December 2009 to December 2010, and we present detailed results (velocity model, hypocentres and focal mechanism) from this network. In addition, we inverted seven focal mechanisms, including six that were used in previous studies, and determined the directions of the three main axes of the regional stress field. Selecting a very precise set of 12 earthquakes, we found an active seismic zone with a depth between 3.5 and 4.8 km and with a horizontal dimension of approximately 2.5 km in the NW–SE direction (azimuth of 118°) and a strike-slip focal mechanism. The new seismic fault and some of the previous seismic faults determined in previous studies occur near the continental-scale Transbrasiliano lineament, but they exhibit no direct relationship with that ancient structure. The stress field is characterized by NW–SE trending compression and NE–SW trending extension. This result suggests that the rheological contrast between the continental–oceanic crusts created flexural stresses with maximum horizontal compression parallel to the continental margin. This stress pattern occurs along the Potiguar basin and continues west as far as the Amazon fan along the Equatorial margin of Brazil. This stress field and related seismicity may be a characteristic of this type of passive margin that is generated during the transform shearing between the South America and Africa plates and that exhibits an abrupt oceanic–continent transition, steep continental slopes and high bathymetric gradients.

Description: Wave-induced local fluid flow is known as a key mechanism to explain the intrinsic wave dissipation in fluid-saturated rocks. Understanding the relationship between the acoustic properties of rocks and fluid patch distributions is important to interpret the observed seismic wave phenomena. A triple-layer patchy (TLP) model is proposed to describe the P -wave dissipation process in a double-porosity media saturated with two immiscible fluids. The double-porosity rock consists of a solid matrix with unique host porosity and inclusions which contain the second type of pores. Two immiscible fluids are considered in concentric spherical patches, where the inner pocket and the outer sphere are saturated with different fluids. The kinetic and dissipation energy functions of local fluid flow (LFF) in the inner pocket are formulated through oscillations in spherical coordinates. The wave propagation equations of the TLP model are based on Biot's theory and the corresponding Lagrangian equations. The P -wave dispersion and attenuation caused by the Biot friction mechanism and the local fluid flow (related to the pore structure and the fluid distribution) are obtained by a plane-wave analysis from the Christoffel equations. Numerical examples and laboratory measurements indicate that P -wave dispersion and attenuation are significantly influenced by the spatial distributions of both, the solid heterogeneity and the fluid saturation distribution. The TLP model is in reasonably good agreement with White's and Johnson's models. However, differences in phase velocity suggest that the heterogeneities associated with double-porosity and dual-fluid distribution should be taken into account when describing the P -wave dispersion and attenuation in partially saturated rocks.

Description: We present a 3-D model of P and S velocities beneath El Hierro Island, constructed using the traveltime data of more than 13 000 local earthquakes recorded by the Instituto Geográfico Nacional (IGN, Spain) in the period from 2011 July to 2012 September. The velocity models were performed using the LOTOS code for iterative passive source tomography. The results of inversion were thoroughly verified using different resolution and robustness tests. The results reveal that the majority of the onshore area of El Hierro is associated with a high-velocity anomaly observed down to 10–12-km depth. This anomaly is interpreted as the accumulation of solid igneous rocks erupted during the last 1 Myr and intrusive magmatic bodies. Below this high-velocity pattern, we observe a low-velocity anomaly, interpreted as a batch of magma coming from the mantle located beneath El Hierro. The boundary between the low- and high-velocity anomalies is marked by a prominent seismicity cluster, thought to represent anomalous stresses due to the interaction of the batch of magma with crust material. The areas of recent eruptions, Orchilla and La Restinga, are associated with low-velocity anomalies surrounding the main high-velocity block. These eruptions took place around the island where the crust is much weaker than the onshore area and where the melted material cannot penetrate. These results put constraints on the geological model that could explain the origin of the volcanism in oceanic islands, such as in the Canaries, which is not yet clearly understood.

Description: Scattering and refractions that occur in the heterogenous near-surface beneath seismic stations can strongly affect the relative amplitudes recorded by three-component seismometers. Using data from Tungurahua volcano we have developed a procedure to correct these ‘ site effects’. We show that seismic noise signals store site information, and then use their normalized spectral amplitudes as site frequency response functions. The process does not require a reference station (as per the S -wave and coda methods) or assume that the vertical amplitude is constant (the H/V component ratio method). Correcting the site effects has three consequences on data analysis: (1) improvement of the seismic source location and its energy estimation; (2) identification of a strong influence on the volcanic acoustic seismic ratio (VASR) and (3) decoupling the air wave impact on the ground caused by explosions or eruption jets. We show how site effect corrections improve the analysis of an eruption jet on 2006 July 14–15, appearing two periods of strong acoustic energy release and a progressive increase of the seismic energy, reaching the maximum before finishing the eruption.

Description: Scattering and refractions that occur in the heterogenous near-surface beneath seismic stations can strongly affect the relative amplitudes recorded by three-component seismometers. Using data from Tungurahua volcano we have developed a procedure to correct these ‘ site effects’. We show that seismic noise signals store site information, and then use their normalized spectral amplitudes as site frequency response functions. The process does not require a reference station (as per the S -wave and coda methods) or assume that the vertical amplitude is constant (the H/V component ratio method). Correcting the site effects has three consequences on data analysis: (1) improvement of the seismic source location and its energy estimation; (2) identification of a strong influence on the volcanic acoustic seismic ratio (VASR) and (3) decoupling the air wave impact on the ground caused by explosions or eruption jets. We show how site effect corrections improve the analysis of an eruption jet on 2006 July 14–15, appearing two periods of strong acoustic energy release and a progressive increase of the seismic energy, reaching the maximum before finishing the eruption.

Description: Monoclinic pyrrhotite (Fe 7 S 8 ) owes its ferrimagnetism to an ordered array of Fe vacancies. Its magnetic properties change markedly around 30 K, in what is known as the Besnus transition. Plausible explanations for the Besnus transition are either due to changes in crystalline anisotropy from a transformation in crystal symmetry or from the establishment of a two-phase system with magnetic interaction between the two phases. To help resolve this discrepancy, we measured hysteresis loops every 5° and backfield curves every 10° in the basal plane of an oriented single crystal of monoclinic pyrrhotite at 300 K and every 2 K from 50 K through the Besnus transition until 20 K. Between 50 and 30 K, hysteresis loops possess double inflections between crystallographic a -axes and only a single inflection parallel to the a -axes. Magnetization energy calculations and relative differences of the loops show a sixfold symmetry in this temperature range. We propose that the inflections stem from magnetic axis switching, which is both field and temperature dependent, in a manner somewhat analogous to an isotropic point where magnetocrystalline constants change their sign. The Besnus transition is best characterized by changes in magnetic remanence and coercivity over a 6° temperature span (28–34 K) with a maximum rate of change at 30 K. A surprising yet puzzling finding is that the coercivity ratio becomes less than unity below the transition when fourfold symmetry arises. Because the changes in magnetic parameters are linked to the crystal structure, we conclude the Besnus transition owes its origin to a distortion of the crystallographic axes below 30 K rather than an apparition of a two-phase system. An isothermal magnetization of natural pyrrhotite cycled from room temperature to successively lower temperatures through the Besnus transition decreases 2–4 times less than equivalent grain sizes of magnetite, with less than a 10 per cent loss in remanence between 300 and 150 K in pseudo-single-domain (PSD) pyrrhotite. As PSD monoclinic pyrrhotite carries the magnetic remanence in some meteorites, it is likely that low-temperature cycling in space then warming to ambient conditions at the Earth's surface will have only a minor influence on palaeointensity values derived from those meteorites.