ALBERT

Description: Intense rainfall generated by convective clouds causes flash flooding in many parts of the world. Understanding the microphysical processes leading to the formation of precipitation is one of the main challenges to improving our capability to make quantitative precipitation forecasts. Here, we present microphysics observations of cumulus clouds measured over the Southwest Peninsula of the UK during the COnvective Precipitation Experiment (COPE) in August 2013, which are framed into a wider context using ground-based and airborne radar measurements. Two lines of cumulus clouds formed in the early afternoon along convergence lines aligned with the peninsula. The lines became longer and broader during the afternoon as a result of new cell formation and stratiform regions forming downwind of the convective cells. Aircraft penetrations at −5 °C showed that all the required conditions of the Hallett–Mossop (H–M) ice multiplication process were met in developing regions, and ice concentrations up to 350 L−1 were measured in the mature stratiform regions, indicating that secondary ice production was active. Detailed sampling focused on an isolated liquid cloud that glaciated as it matured to merge with a band of cloud downwind. In the initial cell, a few drizzle drops were measured, some of which froze to form graupel; the ice images are most consistent with freezing drizzle, rather than smaller cloud drops forming the first ice. As new cells developed in and around the cloud, ice concentrations up to two orders of magnitude higher than the predicted ice nuclei concentrations began to be observed and the cloud glaciated over a period of 12–15 min. Ice splinters were captured by supercooled drizzle drops causing them to freeze to form instant-rimers. Graupel and columns were observed in cloud penetrations up to the −12 °C level, though many ice particles were mixed-habit due to riming and growth by vapour diffusion at multiple temperatures. Frozen drizzle/raindrops initially made up the majority of precipitation-sized particles in the H–M zone, while ice splinters required time to grow by vapour diffusion. It is therefore clear that the freezing of supercooled drizzle drops not only provides a pathway to advance the onset of the H–M process, it also accelerates glaciation and the formation of precipitation once it has begun. Accurate representation of both the warm rain and H–M processes, including their interactions with each other and cloud dynamics, appears key to determining the timing and location of precipitation.

Description: Aerosol-cloud research in the Arctic has largely focused on the springtime resulting in relatively little information about the effects of the atmospheric aerosol on Arctic clouds during summer. An airborne study, carried out during July, 2014 from Resolute Bay, Nunavut, Canada, provides a comprehensive in-situ look into some effects of aerosol particles on liquid clouds in the clean environment of the Arctic summer. The median cloud droplet number concentrations (CDNC) are 10 cm−3 and 101 cm−3 for low altitude cloud (LA: clouds topped below 200 m) and higher altitude cloud (HA: clouds based above 200 m), respectively. The mean lower activation size of aerosol particles is ≤ 50 nm diameter in 40 % of the cases, and particles as small as 20 nm activated in the HA clouds consistent with the higher supersaturations inferred for those clouds. Over 60 % of the LA cloud cases fall into the cloud condensation nuclei (CCN)-limited regime of Mauritsen et al. (2011) within which increases in CDNC may increase liquid water and warm the surface. In that CCN-limited regime, the liquid water contents (LWC) and the CDNC are positively correlated, but there is no dependence of changes in either the CDNC or LWC on the aerosol, suggesting no aerosol limitation. Above the Mauritsen limit, where indirect cooling may result, particles with diameters from 20 nm to 100 nm exert a strong influence on the CDNC. Based on CO concentrations, the background CDNC are estimated to range between 16 cm−3 and 160 cm−3, implying a large uncertainty for the baseline of the aerosol cloud albedo effect.

Description: Relationships between basic microphysical parameters are studied within the framework of homogeneous and extreme inhomogeneous mixing. Analytical expressions and numerical simulations of relationships between droplet concentration, extinction coefficient, liquid water content, and mean volume droplet size, formed at the final stage of mixing are presented. The expressions are used to identify type of mixing for in-situ observations obtained in convective clouds. The analysis suggests that for the set of observations investigated here, the interaction between cloudy and entrained environments is dominated by inhomogeneous mixing. Lastly, an analysis of different response times of the cloud environment undergoing mixing is presented. Comparisons of different characteristic times suggest that within the same mixing environment depending on mixing fraction some volumes may be dominated by homogeneous mixing whereas others by inhomogeneous mixing.

Description: The evolution of monodisperse and polydisperse droplet size distributions (DSDs) during homogeneous mixing is analyzed. Time-dependent universal analytical relations of supersaturation and liquid water content, which depend on a sole non-dimensional parameter, are obtained for a monodisperse DSD. The evolution of moments and moment-relation functions in the course of the homogeneous evaporation of polydisperse DSDs is analyzed using a parcel model. It is shown that the classic conceptual scheme, according to which homogeneous mixing leads to a decrease in the droplet mass under constant droplet concentration, is valid only in cases of monodisperse or initially very narrow polydisperse DSDs. In cases of wide polydisperse DSDs, mixing and successive evaporation lead to a decrease of both mass and concentration such that the characteristic droplet sizes remain nearly constant. As this feature is typically associated with inhomogeneous mixing, we conclude that in cases of an initially wide DSD at cloud top, homogeneous mixing is nearly indistinguishable from inhomogeneous mixing.

Description: An idealized model of time-dependent mixing between cloud and non-cloud volumes is analyzed. Initial droplet size distribution (DSD) in cloud volume is assumed to be monodisperse. Both analytical investigation and parcel model investigation are used to study mixing processes and solve diffusion-evaporation equations. It is shown that the evolution of microphysical variables and the final equilibrium stage are unambiguously determined by two non-dimensional parameters. The first parameter, R, which is proportional to the ratio of the saturation deficit to the liquid water content in a cloud volume, determines whether the equilibrium stage is reached at 100 % relative humidity, or, rather, leads to a full evaporation of cloud droplets. The second parameter, Da, is the Damkölher number, which is equal to the ratio of the characteristic mixing time and phase relaxation time. This parameter (together with parameter R) determines whether mixing takes place according to a homogeneous or an inhomogeneous scenario. An analysis of the results obtained within a wide range of parameters R and Da is presented. It is shown that there is no pure homogeneous mixing, since the first stage of mixing is always inhomogeneous. Turbulent mixing between different volumes always starts as inhomogeneous and the mixing type can change during the mixing process. At any values of governing parameters, mixing leads to the formation of a tail of small droplets in the DSD and therefore to DSD broadening. The broadening depends onDa and the final DSD dispersion can be as large as 0.2 at large Da. The total duration of the mixing process varies from several to one hundred phase relaxation times, depending on R and Da. Delimitation between the types of mixing on the Da–R plane is carried out. The definitions of homogeneous and inhomogeneous mixings are reconsidered and clarified. The paper also compares the results of the current study with those obtained with classical mixing concepts.

Description: Occurrences of jet engine power loss and damage have been associated with flight through fully glaciated deep convection at −10 to −50 °C. Power loss events commonly occur during flight through radar reflectivity (Ze) less than 20–30 dBZ and no more than moderate turbulence, often overlying moderate to heavy rain near the surface. During 2010–2012 Airbus carried out flight tests seeking to characterize the highest ice water content (IWC) in such low-Ze regions of large, cold-topped storm systems in the vicinity of Cayenne, Darwin, and Santiago. Within the highest IWC regions encountered, at typical sampling elevations circa 11 km, the measured ice size distributions exhibit a notably narrow concentration of mass over area-equivalent diameters of 100–500 μm. Given substantial and poorly quantified measurement uncertainties, here we evaluate the consistency of the Airbus in situ measurements with ground-based profiling radar observations obtained under quasi-steady, heavy stratiform rain conditions in one of the Airbus-sampled locations. We find that profiler-observed radar reflectivities and mean Doppler velocities at Airbus sampling temperatures are generally consistent with those calculated from in situ size distribution measurements. We also find that column simulations using the in situ size distributions as an upper boundary condition are generally consistent with observed profiles of Ze, mean Doppler velocity, and retrieved rain rate. The results of these consistency checks motivate an examination of the microphysical pathways that could be responsible for the observed size distribution features in Part 2.

Description: The aeronautics industry has established that a threat to aircraft is posed by atmospheric conditions of substantial ice water content (IWC) where equivalent radar reflectivity (Ze) does not exceed 20–30 dBZ and supercooled water is not present, encountered almost exclusively in the vicinity of deep convection. Part 1 of this two-part study presents in situ measurements of such conditions sampled by Airbus in three tropical regions, commonly near 11 km and −43 °C, and concludes that the measured ice particle size distributions are broadly consistent with past literature and with profiling radar measurements of Ze and mean Doppler velocity obtained within monsoonal deep convection in one of the regions sampled. In all three regions the Airbus measurements generally indicate variable IWC that often exceeds 2 g m−3 with relatively uniform mass median area-equivalent diameter (MMDeq) of 200–300 μm. Here we use a parcel model with size-resolved microphysics to investigate microphysical pathways that could lead to such conditions. Our simulations indicate that homogeneous freezing of water drops produces a much smaller ice MMDeq than observed, and occurs only in the absence of hydrometeor gravitational collection for the conditions considered. Development of a mass mode of ice aloft that overlaps with the measurements requires a substantial source of small ice particles at temperatures of about −10 °C or warmer, which subsequently grow from water vapor. One conceivable source in our simulation framework is Hallett–Mossop ice production; another is abundant concentrations of heterogeneous ice freezing nuclei acting together with copious shattering of water drops upon freezing. Regardless of production mechanism, the dominant mass modal diameter of vapor-grown ice is reduced as the ice multiplication source strength increases and as competition for water vapor increases. Both mass and modal diameter are reduced by entrainment and by increasing aerosol concentrations. Weaker updrafts lead to greater mass and larger modal diameters of vapor-grown ice, the opposite of expectations regarding lofting of larger ice particles in stronger updrafts. While stronger updrafts do loft more dense ice particles produced primarily by raindrop freezing, we find that weaker updrafts allow the warm rain process to reduce competition for diffusional growth of the less dense ice expected to persist in convective outflow.

Description: Shattering presents a serious obstacle to current airborne in situ methods of characterizing the microphysical properties of ice clouds. Small shattered fragments result from the impact of natural ice crystals with the forward parts of aircraft-mounted measurement probes. The presence of these shattered fragments may result in a significant overestimation of the measured concentration of small ice crystals, contaminating the measurement of the ice particle size distribution (PSD). One method of identifying shattered particles is to use an inter-arrival time algorithm. This method is based on the assumption that shattered fragments form spatial clusters that have short inter-arrival times between particles, relative to natural particles, when they pass through the sample volume of the probe. The inter-arrival time algorithm is a successful technique for the classification of shattering artifacts and natural particles. This study assesses the limitations and efficiency of the inter-arrival time algorithm. The analysis has been performed using simultaneous measurements of two-dimensional (2-D) optical array probes with the standard and antishattering "K-tips" collected during the Airborne Icing Instrumentation Experiment (AIIE). It is shown that the efficiency of the algorithm depends on ice particle size, concentration and habit. Additional numerical simulations indicate that the effectiveness of the inter-arrival time algorithm to eliminate shattering artifacts can be significantly restricted in some cases. Improvements to the inter-arrival time algorithm are discussed. It is demonstrated that blind application of the inter-arrival time algorithm cannot filter out all shattered aggregates. To mitigate against the effects of shattering, the inter-arrival time algorithm should be used together with other means, such as antishattering tips and specially designed algorithms for segregation of shattered artifacts and natural particles.

Description: The aeronautics industry has established that a threat to aircraft is posed by atmospheric conditions of substantial ice water content (IWC) where equivalent radar reflectivity (Ze) does not exceed 20–30 dBZ and supercooled water is not present; these conditions are encountered almost exclusively in the vicinity of deep convection. Part 1 (Fridlind et al., 2015) of this two-part study presents in situ measurements of such conditions sampled by Airbus in three tropical regions, commonly near 11 km and −43 °C, and concludes that the measured ice particle size distributions are broadly consistent with past literature with profiling radar measurements of Ze and mean Doppler velocity obtained within monsoonal deep convection in one of the regions sampled. In all three regions, the Airbus measurements generally indicate variable IWC that often exceeds 2 g m-3 with relatively uniform mass median area-equivalent diameter (MMDeq) of 200–300 μm. Here we use a parcel model with size-resolved microphysics to investigate microphysical pathways that could lead to such conditions. Our simulations indicate that homogeneous freezing of water drops produces a much smaller ice MMDeq than observed, and occurs only in the absence of hydrometeor gravitational collection for the conditions considered. Development of a mass mode of ice aloft that overlaps with the measurements requires a substantial source of small ice particles at temperatures of about −10 °C or warmer, which subsequently grow from water vapor. One conceivable source in our simulation framework is Hallett–Mossop ice production; another is abundant concentrations of heterogeneous ice freezing nuclei acting together with copious shattering of water drops upon freezing. Regardless of the production mechanism, the dominant mass modal diameter of vapor-grown ice is reduced as the ice-multiplication source strength increases and as competition for water vapor increases. Both mass and modal diameter are reduced by entrainment and by increasing aerosol concentrations. Weaker updrafts lead to greater mass and larger modal diameters of vapor-grown ice, the opposite of expectations regarding lofting of larger ice particles in stronger updrafts. While stronger updrafts do loft more dense ice particles produced primarily by raindrop freezing, we find that weaker updrafts allow the warm rain process to reduce competition for diffusional growth of the less dense ice expected to persist in convective outflow.

Description: Occurrences of jet engine power loss and damage have been associated with flight through fully glaciated deep convection at −10 to −50 °C. Power loss events commonly occur during flight through radar reflectivity (Ze) less than 20–30 dBZ and no more than moderate turbulence, often overlying moderate to heavy rain near the surface. During 2010–2012, Airbus carried out flight tests seeking to characterize the highest ice water content (IWC) in such low-Ze regions of large, cold-topped storm systems in the vicinity of Cayenne, Darwin, and Santiago. Within the highest IWC regions encountered, at typical sampling elevations (circa 11 km), the measured ice size distributions exhibit a notably narrow concentration of mass over area-equivalent diameters of 100–500 μm. Given substantial and poorly quantified measurement uncertainties, here we evaluate the consistency of the Airbus in situ measurements with ground-based profiling radar observations obtained under quasi-steady, heavy stratiform rain conditions in one of the Airbus-sampled locations. We find that profiler-observed radar reflectivities and mean Doppler velocities at Airbus sampling temperatures are generally consistent with those calculated from in situ size-distribution measurements. We also find that column simulations using the in situ size distributions as an upper boundary condition are generally consistent with observed profiles of Ze, mean Doppler velocity (MDV), and retrieved rain rate. The results of these consistency checks motivate an examination of the microphysical pathways that could be responsible for the observed size-distribution features in Ackerman et al. (2015).