ALBERT

Description: Deformation localisation can lead to a variety of structures, such as shear zones and shear bands (from grain to crustal scale), from isolated zones to anastomosing networks. The heterogeneous strain field can furthermore result in a wide range of highly diverse fold geometries. In anisotropic materials the deformation behaviour is controlled by the viscoplastic anisotropy of the material and their ability to form a crystallographic preferred orientation (CPO). Here we present a selection of a series of numerical simulations which aim to investigate (1) the influence of an initial CPO in an anisotropic material on localization behaviour and (2) the role of layering/passive markers on the development of deformation structures.

Description: Crystal orientation fabric (COF) analysis provides information about the c-axis orientation of ice grains and the associated anisotropy and microstructural information about deformation and recrystallisation processes within the glacier. This information can be used to introduce modules that fully describe the microstructural anisotropy or at least direction-dependent enhancement factors for glacier modelling. The COF was studied at an ice core that was obtained from the temperate Rhonegletscher, located in the central Swiss Alps. Seven samples, extracted at depths between 2 and 79 m, were analysed with an automatic fabric analyser. The COF analysis revealed conspicuous four-maxima patterns of the c-axis orientations at all depths. Additional data, such as microstructural images, produced during the ice sample preparation process, were considered to interpret these patterns. Furthermore, repeated high-precision global navigation satellite system (GNSS) surveying allowed the local glacier flow direction to be determined. The relative movements of the individual surveying points indicated longitudinal compressive stresses parallel to the glacier flow. Finally, numerical modelling of the ice flow permitted estimation of the local stress distribution. An integrated analysis of all the data sets provided indications and suggestions for the development of the four-maxima patterns. The centroid of the four-maxima patterns of the individual core samples and the coinciding maximum eigenvector approximately align with the compressive stress directions obtained from numerical modelling with an exception for the deepest sample. The clustering of the c axes in four maxima surrounding the predominant compressive stress direction is most likely the result of a fast migration recrystallisation. This interpretation is supported by air bubble analysis of large-area scanning macroscope (LASM) images. Our results indicate that COF studies, which have so far predominantly been performed on cold ice samples from the polar regions, can also provide valuable insights into the stress and strain rate distribution within temperate glaciers.

Description: The ice mass balances of Antarctic and Greenland ice sheets represent the largest uncertainty for predicting future sea-level rise. Understanding how ice flows from the accumulation to the ablation zone is therefore crucial for correctly estimating the changing mass in polar ice-sheets. On Earth, ice crystals have a hexagonal symmetry (ice lh) with a strong anisotropy favouring basal slip. This results in a progressive development of a vertical c-axis preferred orientation (LPO) of ice polycrystalline aggregates during deformation. In depth, the elastic anisotropy of polycrystalline ice gradually increases due the development of a vertical LPO. Observations of P-wave (Vp) and S-wave (Vs) velocities in ice sheets reveal a strong decrease of ~25% of Vs in depth, while Vp remains approximately constant. According to Wittlinger and Farra (2015) the low Vs may be due to the presence of unfrozen liquids resulting from pre-melting at grain joints and/or melting of chemical solutions buried in ice. Although previous studies of two-phase rocks (including melt and water) show that seismic velocities depend on both LPO and water content, studies on the effect of melt on polar ice seismic velocity are scarce. In this contribution we investigate the changes in P- and faster S-wave velocities during deformation of polycrystalline ice with different melt fractions.

Description: We present a record of melt events obtained from the East Greenland Ice Core Project (EastGRIP) ice core in central northeastern Greenland, covering the largest part of the Holocene. The data were acquired visually using an optical dark-field line scanner. We detect and describe melt layers and lenses, seen as bubble-free layers and lenses, throughout the ice above the bubble–clathrate transition. This transition is located at 1150 m depth in the EastGRIP ice core, corresponding to an age of 9720 years b2k. We define the brittle zone in the EastGRIP ice core as that from 650 to 950 m depth, where we count on average more than three core breaks per meter. We analyze melt layer thicknesses, correct for ice thinning, and account for missing layers due to core breaks. Our record of melt events shows a large, distinct peak around 1014 years b2k (986 CE) and a broad peak around 7000 years b2k, corresponding to the Holocene Climatic Optimum. In total, we can identify approximately 831 mm of melt (corrected for thinning) over the past 10 000 years. We find that the melt event from 986 CE is most likely a large rain event similar to that from 2012 CE, and that these two events are unprecedented throughout the Holocene. We also compare the most recent 2500 years to a tree ring composite and find an overlap between melt events and tree ring anomalies indicating warm summers. Considering the ice dynamics of the EastGRIP site resulting from the flow of the Northeast Greenland Ice Stream (NEGIS), we find that summer temperatures must have been at least 3 ± 0.6 ∘C warmer during the Early Holocene compared to today.