ALBERT

Description: A knowledge of the exact length of the breeding season for improved breeds under different environmental conditions in this country is lacking. Such knowledge is of importance so that the lambing season can be arranged according to farm conditions. Such knowledge, apart from providing the necessary background for the successful application of artificial insemination and administration of hormones, helps to explain certain problems of infertility. By selection it should be possible to build up strains, by extending the breeding season at one or both ends, so as to get lambing at any required time. As the results below show, crossbreeding and selection could lead to early sexual maturity, prolonged breeding season or restricted lactation anoestrus, which would undoubtedly increase the reproductive potentiality of the ewe.

Description: Eighty-nine Fayomi pullets were classified into three major classes High, Medium and Low according to the intensity of egg laying. Six birds in each class were slaughtered. The major body organs were dissected and weighed. The number and diameter of the visible oocytes were recorded. The dressing out percentage was obtained. The results were as follows:1. During the first year of laying, the averagenumber of eggs laid per day was 0·50, 0·42 and 0·24 eggs for the High, Medium and Low classes respectively.2. There were significant differences in the ovarian weight, length and weight of oviduct, these being highest in the High class.3. The number of visible oocytes was some 200 in all classes. There were, however, differences between classes in the maturation rate of the oocytes as measured by the differences in the diameter of successive ones.4. The weight of blood, feathers, head, wings and legs were higher in the Low than in the High; these are all early maturing organs.5. The weights of the full alimentary canal and the empty gizzard were higher in the High than in the Low, this might be accounted for by a greater appetite and to intake of feed induced by the higher egg production.6. There were no significant differences in the weight of the circulatory, excretory and respiratory organs which are needed for the physiological welfare of the birds.7. The dressing out percentage was higher in the Low and Medium than in the High. This may be due to the greater drainage of nutrients required for high egg production.

Description: 1. Thirty-one buffalo-cows of different ages were tested for the symptoms and duration of oestrus, and the incidence of post-partum oestrus and conception. Clinical examinations of the vagina were also carried out.2. The symptoms of heat were less intense than in cattle and there was no homosexual activity.3. Pro-oestrus occurred in 43% of the cases with an average duration of 21.20 hr. whilst metoestrus occurred in 67% of the cases with an average duration of 19.20 hr. The average duration of oestrus was 28.47 hr.4. The onset and cessation of oestrus were either abrupt or gradual. The phenomenon ‘split oestrus’ was observed intervening normal cycles. This was not characteristic of the individuals.5. The average interval to post-partum oestrus was 43.80 days. The average number of silent heats per individual was 0.86. Conception took place after an average of 1.71 services whilst the breeding efficiency was 93% in the calving buffaloes.6. Normal clinical changes in the vagina (temperature; nature and amount of secretion; picture of smear) were not reliable indicators of oestrus.7. Further problems concerning reproduction in the buffalo are suggested.

Description: Thirty-five buffalo heifers were tested daily with fertile males to ascertain the age and live weight at first possible oestrus and conception. Patterns of sexual behaviour were recorded while rectal palpation was carried out to define the conditions of the ovaries and to diagnose pregnancies. The mammary gland development, as well as the intensity of lactation, were noted post partum.1. Pubertal matings were allowed with less certainty than adult matings. The signs of oestrus were intensified by the recurrence of heat and association with the male. Homosexuality was only observed in the first and second oestrus.2. The average age of first oestrus, first conception and first calving were 406, 647 and 963 days respectively. The body weight at first oestrus and first conception were 198 and 319 kg. respectively.3. The number of services/conception ranged from 1 to 7 with an average of 4·25. The number of silent heats/female ranged from 1 to 4 with an average of 1·65. The period elapsing from first oestrus to first conception ranged from 52 to 438 days. Before conception, there was a period of anoestrus which ranged from 115 to 314 days, this was probably due to weak oestrus symptoms.4. The live weights at 28, 84, 140, 196, 252 and 308 days were correlated with the age and live weight at first oestrus as well as the live weight at first conception.5. All the buffalo-cows except two which showed oestrus conceived. Fourteen animals calved normally while fourteen aborted after 131–318 days. The gestation period ranged from 312 to 321 days with an average of 316 days. The birth weight of young ranged from 33 to 40 kg. Seven animals were not lactating while seven gave 1–2 kg. of milk.6. Puberty phenomenon is a gradual phenomenon and is attained in steps: sexual desire, ovulation, oestrus, conception, pregnancy then lactation.

Description: The structure, distribution and dimensions of skin strata and sweat glands have been investigated in Egyptian buffaloes and cattle. Samples from sixteen body regions were taken from three adult bulls of both species. Identical studies were also made on one buffalo calf and two buffalo embryos. Serial vertical and horizontal sections were cut from each body region using the ‘terpineol paraffin wax’ method. The following results were obtained.1. Buffalo skin is characterized by dermal papillae enclosing papillomatous epidermis. The fibrous structure of the dermis is similar in both species. In buffaloes, the average thickness of skin, main epidermis, papillomatous epidermis, and cornium is 6·5 mm., 50, 115, and 11μ respectively. The epidermis coefficient is 12 for the main epidermis and 18 for the papillomatous epidermis. In cattle, the average thickness of skin, epidermis and cornium layer is 4·3 mm., 51 and 5 μ respectively, while the epidermis coefficient is 8.2. The average number of hair follicles per sq.cm. of skin is 394 in the buffalo and 2633 in cattle. Each hair follicle is accompanied by two large lobulated sebaceous glands in the buffalo, and one small bilobed gland in cattle.3. There is no species difference in the histology of the sweat glands. Each hair follicle is accompanied by one sweat gland in both species. In the buffalo, the body of the sweat gland is oval and convoluted, while the duct is twisted at its attachment to the body. In cattle, the body of the gland is elongated while the duct is straight. The number of sweat glands per sq.cm. of skin is 394 in the buffalo and 2633 in cattle. The dimensions of the sweat glands are larger in buffaloes than in cattle. The length, circumference and sweating surface of the gland is 0·58, 0·47, and 0·276 sq.mm. in the buffalo, and 0·47, 0·26, and 0·124 sq.mm. in cattle respectively. The glandular surface of sweat glands per sq.cm. of skin is 1·07 sq.cm. in the buffalo and 3·08 sq.cm. in cattle.4. The type of sweat gland secretion is apocrine in both species. In the buffalo, successive stages of apocrine secretion are observed, and the merocrinelike form is rare. In cattle, the merocrine-like form prevails and the other stages are very rare. The theory (Findlay & Yang, 1950) of intraluminal transformation, of secretory products from coarse granularity to fluid homogeneity is supported. The effect of locality on the type of sweating activity is stressed.5. There are species differences in the distribution of blood vessels and capillaries. In the subepidermal level, the arterial branches are more frequent and superficial in buffaloes than in cattle. Capillaries are found in the dermal papillae of buffalo skin. The capillary loops encircling the hair follicle are more frequent in cattle than in buffaloes. The blood capillaries supplying the sebaceous glands are more numerous in the buffalo than in cattle. The blood supply of sweat glands is poor in both species.6. There are age differences in the skin histology. The number of hair follicles per sq.cm. of skin in a 5-months-old embryo, calf at birth, and adult buffaloes is 10560, 1248 and 400 respectively. There are no skin glands in the 1-month and 5-months-old embryos. The sweat gland in the calf is small in size and similar in structure to that of the adult. Calves have fewer sweat glands than adults.7. The body conformation and the degree of pigmentation are affected by species, breed and locality.8. The secreting activity of the sweat glands may be affected by the locality.9. It seems that there are species differences in the mechanism of heat convection and radiation, insensible perspiration and sensible perspiration, due to histological differences.

Description: Three hundred and eighty-two Fayomi pullets were available from different hatches throughout the year. The age and body weight, as well as the weight of first eggs at sexual maturity in relation to growth curves, were recorded. The fertilizability and hatchability of the first eggs laid at sexual maturity were also examined from one hundred pullets hatched during the months of November and August.1. (a) The winter hatches (December, January and February) reached sexual maturity at 183 days and at a body weight of 1093 g. The weight of the first ten eggs was 31·8 g., while the period from first to the tenth egg was 26 days. Summer hatches (June, July and August) reached sexual maturity at 165 days and at a body weight of 1124 g., while the weight of the first ten eggs was 32·4 g. and the period from first to tenth egg was 31 days. Autumn hatches (September, October and November) reached sexual maturity at 159 days and at a body weight of 1023 g., while the weight of the first ten eggs was 31·4 g. and the period from first to tenth egg was 23 days.(b) Summer and winter hatches attained sexual maturity at an older age and heavier body weight, and laid heavier first ten eggs in a longer period than autumn hatches.2. The growth curves were higher for the summer hatches than for the spring (March, April and May) ones. Winter and autumn hatches were intermediate. Summer hatches attained sexual maturity at a higher relative growth rate than autumn and winter hatches. In Egypt (30° N.), the effect of temperature seems to override that of daylength in respect to growth and sexual maturity.3. Yearly differences in the attainment of sexual maturity were significant, mainly in December hatches. Individual differences were minimized during summer hatches.4. (a) The first egg laid can be fertilizable and even hatchable. When sexual maturity was attained at an old age or a heavy body weight, the first eggs laid had a greater chance of being fertilizable and hatchable. This is due to the weight of first eggs laid and to the season at which sexual maturity is attained.(b) The attainment of sexual maturity as measured by the fertilizability and hatchability of first eggs, seems to be a gradual phenomenon.

Description: Semen samples were collected from twelve fattailed rams of two breeds (nine Ossimi and three Rahmani), by the use of an artificial vagina. They were kept under natural conditions at Cairo, Egypt (30° N.). Three collections were made each month throughout one year (1951–2).

Description: Forty adult (15 months old) fat-tailed Egyptian rams and ewes of the Rahmani and Ossimi breeds were available at the Animal Breeding Research Farm, Giza, Egypt (30° N.). Body temperature and respiration rates were measured twice weekly throughout the year 1953–4. On days of observations, four readings were taken at 10 a.m., 12 noon, 2 p.m. and 4 p.m. Skin temperature was measured once weekly at noon for nine body regions, using a precision bridge thermometer. The effects of docking and pregnancy were also studied.1. There were seasonal variations in body temperature and respiration rate. The maximum values were during summer and the minimum during winter. The seasonal rate of change was greater in respiration rate than in body temperature.2. Body temperature was 39·1 and 39·0° C. for the Ossimi rams and ewes respectively, while it was 38·9° C. for both Rahmani sexes. Respiration rate per minute was 42·0, 39·3, for Ossimi rams and ewes and 38·2 and 35·9 for Rahmani rams and ewes respectively. Body temperature and respiration rate were higher in the Ossimi than in the Rahmani breed, and in the males than in the females. Breed differences may be related to anatomical differences such as body conformation, size of skull and tail, thickness of skin and subcutaneous fat and differences in coat characteristics. Sex differences may be associated with the live weight of the animals as well as differences in the hormonal system.3. Pregnancy had no effect on body temperature and respiration rate in either breed.4. Different experimental groups reacted similarly with respect to diurnal variations in body temperature and respiration rate; the lowest values being at 10 a.m. and the highest at 4 p.m. Maximum body temperature and respiration rate preceded maximum environmental temperature by 2–4 hr. The diurnal rate of change in respiration rate was higher than that in body temperature. The diurnal changes in body temperature and respiration rate of animals were mainly due to the changes in the environmental temperature throughout the day.5. (a) Skin temperature varied from 33·7 to 39·7° C., according to season and body region. Seasonal variations in skin temperature of different body regions showed the same trend.(b) Highest skin temperatures were recorded for middle and upper fat tail, back thoracic and middle scrotum regions, while the lowest were recorded in lower and upper scrotum, lower tail and neck ventral regions. The breast region had an intermediate skin temperature. The different skin temperatures were due to anatomical differences such as the thickness of subcutaneous fat, density of covering wool or to differences in the amount of blood supply.6. Docked rams had a lower skin temperature and respiration rate than controls, denoting better heat regulation. This may be due to metabolic differences or anatomical changes in the body such as the thickness of subcutaneous fat.

Description: Semen samples were collected from buffalo bulls by a.v. at intervals of 24, 12, 8 and 2 hr., four consecutive ejaculates being collected for each bull in every treatment. Semen qualities were measured in fresh and stored ejaculate at 4° C. for 48 hr.1. (a) In fresh semen, the average initial values were 3·12 ml. for volume, 645 × 103 for concentration per cubic millimetre, 2134 × 106 per ejaculate, 7·25 for motility, 80·1% for live spermatozoa and 21·1% for abnormals.(b) Volume, concentration and percentage of live sperm were not affected by successive ejaculations.(c) Motility started to decrease after the third collection in most cases.(d) Percentage of abnormals was highly affected irrespective of interval of collection.(e) When the interval of collection was short, enlarged middle piece of spermatozoa and detached galea capitis were observed.2. (a) In stored semen, the average values were for motility 3·12%, for live sperm 64·5%, and for abnormals 27·4%.(b) Storage caused a decrease in motility and an increase in percentage of abnormals, while it had no effect on percentage of live sperm.(c) The rupture of head membrane of spermatozoa was observed in stored semen.

Description: Sixteen osteodystrophic dwarf cattle and ten controls of comparable age were slaughtered. The components of the body and eviscerated carcass were weighed and measured. At birth the dwarfs were thick and blocky. At the time of slaughter a bulging forehead was common but not always extreme and not always present. The symptoms of dwarfism became increasingly pronounced with age, due to retarded growth. The dwarfs had shorter thoracic cavity, abdominal cavity, body, loin, hind leg, arm bone and forearm bone than the controls. No explanation can be given for the difference. However, the dwarfs were hydrocephalic and had significantly lighter adrenal and pituitary glands than the control animals. The dwarf animals had more blood, heavier feet, less abdominal fat, smaller loin ‘eye muscle’ area at the 12th rib and a less deep loin ‘eye muscle’. The dwarf females had a lighter rumen (with and without contents) and large intestines (without content) as a percentage of live weight than the controls and dwarf males. There was no difference in palatability of the meat or percentage of wholesale cuts from the dwarf and control animals except for percentage of plate. The following three ratios were disproportionate in the dwarfs as compared with the controls: