ALBERT

Description: A novel hydrogeochemical modeling approach is developed to unravel thermochemical sulfate reduction (TSR) in hydrocarbon reservoirs. Our numerical model couples a web of interconnected hydrogeochemical reactions to three-dimensional (3-D) and reservoir-wide diffusive mass transport. Our modeling approach simulates a semigeneric gas reservoir sealed by anhydrite. The calculated diagenetic processes fit the observations in reservoirs affected by TSR: formation of water, precipitation of calcite, metal (di-)sulfides, and elemental sulfur as replacements of dissolved anhydrite at the expense of CH4(g), as well as formation of hydrogen sulfide (H2S). By varying input parameters, the crucial factors controlling TSR have been identified. Our results highlight that reservoir-wide diffusive mass transport is one prerequisite for TSR. An increase in the rate constant of abiotic sulfate reduction (ASR) and in diffusive mass fluxes, as well as lack of precursor minerals for metal (di-)sulfide precipitation, can increase the souring intensity and accelerate H2S outgassing. In contrast, precipitation of elemental sulfur, which is stable according to the chemical thermodynamics, weakens H2S formation. Our modeling shows that TSR is complex and cannot be represented by the single reaction ASR and by simple correlations between the rate constant of ASR and the H2S gas content. The application of 3-D reactive transport modeling presented here, despite its semigeneric nature, provides a good example of how such an approach can be used ahead of drilling. Our modeling helps to investigate TSR in time and space to quantify the mass conversion of all reactants involved within this web and to predict the souring level.

Description: Oil degradation in the Gullfaks field led to hydrogeochemical processes that caused high CO2 partial pressure and a massive release of sodium into the formation water. Hydrogeochemical modeling of the inorganic equilibrium reactions of water-rock-gas interactions allows us to quantitatively analyze the pathways and consequences of these complex interconnected reactions. This approach considers interactions among mineral assemblages (anorthite, albite, K-feldspar, quartz, kaolinite, goethite, calcite, dolomite, siderite, dawsonite, and nahcolite), various aqueous solutions, and a multicomponent fixed-pressure gas phase (CO2, CH4, and H2) at 4496-psi (31-mPa) reservoir pressure. The modeling concept is based on the anoxic degradation of crude oil (irreversible conversion of n-alkanes to CO2, CH4, H2, and acetic acid) at oil-water contacts. These water-soluble degradation products are the driving forces for inorganic reactions among mineral assemblages, components dissolved in the formation water, and a coexisting gas at equilibrium conditions. The modeling results quantitatively reproduce the proven alteration of mineral assemblages in the reservoir triggered by oil degradation, showing (1) nearly complete dissolution of plagioclase; (2) stability of K-feldspar; (3) massive precipitation of kaolinite and, to a lesser degree, of Ca-Mg-Fe carbonate; and (4) observed uncommonly high CO2 partial pressure (61 psi [0.42 mPa] at maximum). The evolving composition of coexisting formation water is strongly influenced by the uptake of carbonate carbon from oil degradation and sodium released from dissolving albitic plagioclase. This causes supersaturation with regard to thermodynamically stable dawsonite. The modeling results also indicate that nahcolite may form as a CO2-sequestering sodium carbonate instead of dawsonite, likely controlling CO2 partial pressure.