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  • Cambridge University Press  (10)
  • American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS)  (1)
  • 1
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    Metrology and the state: science, revenue, and commerce (2004)
    American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS)
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    Publication Date: 2004-11-20
    Description: "Natural measures of quantity, such as fathoms, cubits, inches, taken from the proportion of the human body, were once in use with every nation," taught Adam Smith in his lecture "Money as the measure of value and medium of exchange," delivered in 1763. "But by a little observation," he continued, "they found that one man's arm was longer or shorter than another's, and that one was not to be compared with the other; and therefore wise men who attended to these things would endeavour to fix upon some more accurate measure, that equal quantities might be of equal values. Their method became absolutely necessary when people came to deal in many commodities, and in great quantities of them." Smith's comments and the rationale underpinning them became increasingly urgent toward the end of the eighteenth century.〈br /〉〈span class="detail_caption"〉Notes: 〈/span〉Ashworth, William J -- New York, N.Y. -- Science. 2004 Nov 19;306(5700):1314-7.〈br /〉〈span class="detail_caption"〉Author address: 〈/span〉School of History, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, L69 3BX, UK. W.J.Ashworth@liverpool.ac.uk.〈br /〉〈span class="detail_caption"〉Record origin:〈/span〉 〈a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15550658" target="_blank"〉PubMed〈/a〉
    Print ISSN: 0036-8075
    Electronic ISSN: 1095-9203
    Topics: Biology , Chemistry and Pharmacology , Computer Science , Medicine , Natural Sciences in General , Physics
    Published by American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS)
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  • 2
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    Results from an experiment on permanent grass evaluating aqueous ammonia and aqueous urea, injected in bands either 30 or 60 cm apart (1977)
    Cambridge University Press
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    Publication Date: 1977-04-01
    Description: SUMMARYThe experiment was on permanent grass at Rothamsted from 1974–75. ‘Nitro-Chalk’ (ammonium nitrate-calcium carbonate mixture, 25% N) broadcast in equal amounts for each of three cuts was the standard treatment against which the following were compared: (1) prilled urea (46% N) broadcast like ‘Nitro-Chalk’, (2) aqueous ammonia (26% N) injected in winter in bands 10 cm deep and either 30 or 60 cm apart, and (3) aqueous urea (18% N) injected like the aqueous ammonia. All these fertilizers were applied to give 250 or 375 or 500 kg N/ha in 1974 and all were reapplied in 1975.In 1974 yields were larger with ‘Nitro-Chalk’ or prilled urea than with the aqueous fertilizers. Aqueous urea gave slightly larger yields than aqueous ammonia. Yields with the aqueous fertilizers were slightly larger when the injector knives were spaced 60 instead of 30 cm apart. Distribution of yield over three cuts was more uniform with ‘Nitro-Chalk’ and prilled urea (divided between cuts) than with the aqueous fertilizers. Injecting the aqueous fertilizers in bands 60 instead of 30 cm apart improved yield distribution only a little. In 1975 yields were slightly larger with the aqueous fertilizers at the first cut, but not in the drought afterwards.Relative yields over the 2 years (‘Nitro-Chalk’ = 100%) were: prilled urea, 97; aqueous urea in 60 cm bands, 96; aqueous urea in 30 cm bands, 95; aqueous ammonia in 60 cm bands, 92; aqueous ammonia in 30 cm bands, 90.In 1974 the grass recovered most N from ‘Nitro-Chalk’ and least from aqueous ammonia, but more from aqueous than from prilled urea. Recovery of N from the aqueous fertilizers was larger when injected in bands 60 instead of 30 cm apart, especially when 250 or 375 kg N/ha was given. Little rain fell in summer 1975 and recoveries of N were smaller than in 1974. The grass recovered more of the injected than the broadcast N, but no more with the injector knives 60 instead of 30 cm apart.
    Print ISSN: 0021-8596
    Electronic ISSN: 1469-5146
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition
    Published by Cambridge University Press
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  • 3
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    Results from an experiment on permanent grass evaluating the cumulative effects of aqueous urea, injected alone or with a nitrification inhibitor, with those of ‘Nitro-Chalk’ (1982)
    Cambridge University Press
    Details
    Publication Date: 1982-02-01
    Description: SUMMARYIn an experiment on permanent grass at Rothamsted during 1975–9 fertilizer-N was applied each year either by injecting an aqueous solution of urea (supplying 250, 375 or 500 kg N/ha) in spring, or by broadcasting ‘Nitro-Chalk’ granules (supplying 100, 200, 300, 400 or 500 kg N/ha) in six equal dressings for each of six cuts.Dry-matter production was largest on plots injected with urea through knives 30 cm apart, and more N was recovered from the injected than from the broadcast applications. Aqueous urea injected at the 60 cm knife spacing nitrified more slowly and persisted in the soil longer than urea injected at 30 cm spacing; this persistence caused grass to grow more uniformly throughout the season, but yields were less. Injecting the nitrification inhibitor sodium trithiocarbonate (STC) with the aqueous urea postponed N uptake much less than doubling knife spacing, but the inhibitor substantially diminished percentage N03-N in harvested grass.In spring 1977 individual plots were split to measure N residues. Half-plots thus received N at the specified rates, either in 4 successive years (1975–8) or in two pairs of successive years (1975 and 1976; 1978 and 1979). In 1977 urea injected in the 2 previous years gave large residual effects, which were increased by STC and also by injecting in bands 60 instead of 30 cm apart. Broadcast ‘Nitro-Chalk’ had much smaller residual effects. In 1979 residual effects of N applied in the 4 previous years were apparently small, regardless of the method of application, because clover became abundant on plots not given N.In 1978 dry-matter production was smaller where N had been given each year during 1975–8 than where N was withheld in 1977. Analysis showed this was caused by a shortage of potassium. This effect was most pronounced where 375 or 500 kg N/ha had been injected in bands 60 cm apart.The results showed that a single, injected application of aqueous urea increased yields of dry grass as effectively as equivalent repeated dressings of ‘Nitro-Chalk’.
    Print ISSN: 0021-8596
    Electronic ISSN: 1469-5146
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition
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  • 4
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    On measuring nitrification and recovery of aqueous ammonia applied to grassland (1973)
    Cambridge University Press
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    Publication Date: 1973-08-01
    Description: SummaryContour diagrams, computed from analyses of soil around bands of aqueous ammonia injected under grass, show the distribution of both NH4-N and nitrifying bacteria.When applied at 155 kg NH3-N/ha, either as 4·7 or 9·3 g N/m of injection slit, using knives spaced either 30 or 60 cm apart, aqueous NH3 was recovered and nitrified more slowly in the bands 60 cm apart. Cumulative yields of grass after 32 weeks were the same (715 ±30 g/m2) from plots injected at either spacing but growth was more even throughout the season from slits 60 cm apart.
    Print ISSN: 0021-8596
    Electronic ISSN: 1469-5146
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition
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  • 5
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    Delayed nitrification and controlled recovery of aqueous ammonia injected under grass (1974)
    Cambridge University Press
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    Publication Date: 1974-10-01
    Description: SUMMARYNitrification of aqueous ammonia, and its uptake by grass, are slower when the amount of NH3-N injected per unit length of slit is increased and as a result crop yield is spread more evenly over the growing season. Measurements of the amounts of NH4-, NO3- and NO2-N in the soil, made at intervals from February until October, and computed diagrams showing their distribution in soil under grass, are presented. We conclude that, at average current rates of application, most of the aqueous ammonia used for grass in England and Wales is probably not applied along the injection slit in sufficient quantity to allow it to persist throughout the summer.
    Print ISSN: 0021-8596
    Electronic ISSN: 1469-5146
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition
    Published by Cambridge University Press
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  • 6
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    The distribution of metamorphic temperatures around the Strontian Granodiorite (1983)
    Cambridge University Press
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    Publication Date: 1983-05-01
    Description: SummaryThe Strontian Granodiorite, a ‘Newer Granite’ emplaced late in the Caledonian orogenic cycle, has an aureole which is strongly asymmetrical: the metamorphic zones are broader to the east of the intrusion than to the west. The asymmetry is attributed to a gradient in the background, regional temperatures. The muscovite-out isograd, marking completion of dehydration of muscovite + quartz to sillimanite + K feldspar (estimated temperature 645 °C), lies within 2 km of the contact on the west, whereas the cordierite isograd, due to the onset of dehydration of biotite+sillimanite+quartz (estimated temperature 690 °C) is at least 2.5 km from the contact on the east. This temperature interval of 45 °C, which is rather insensitive to small errors in the estimated pressure (preferred value 4.1 kbar), is used in a simple geometrical treatment to estimate the regional gradient in the plane of present exposure: approximately 5 °C/km in a direction 30° S of E. Because the intrusion does not appear to have been tilted, this result is regarded as an estimate of the horizontal component of the temperature gradient on the west flank of a regional thermal dome, inherited from the regional metamorphic climax and decaying on a timescale which is suggested, by radiometric data in the literature, to be ˜ 10 Ma. A tectonic origin for the perturbed regional temperature distribution (uplift of hot rocks in the east relative to colder rocks further west) is suggested by the metamorphic petrology of the region, and supported by literature data on structural movements, notably of the Sgurr Beag Slide.
    Print ISSN: 0016-7568
    Electronic ISSN: 1469-5081
    Topics: Geosciences
    Published by Cambridge University Press
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  • 7
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    Myrmekites of Exsolution and Replacement Origins (1972)
    Cambridge University Press
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    Publication Date: 1972-01-01
    Description: SummaryMyrmekite in a two-feldspar migmatite suite has two distinct modes of occurrence: (i) marginally embaying potash feldspar, and (ii) in replacement aggregates after that mineral, the other major constituent of the pseudomorphs being a muscovite-quartz intergrowth. Electron-probe data give quartz proportionalities agreeing with the predictions of existing theories. It is shown that these theories, which refer to either exsolution or small-scale metasomatism, share a common foundation of kinetic impediment to AlSi diffusion. In neither case need one assume the presence of ‘Schwantke's molecule’ as a component of potash feldspar. The two myrmekite occurrences here described are interpreted in terms of essentially simultaneous exsolution and hydrative replacement processes operating as regional metamorphic temperatures began to decline from their climactic values. The existence of exsolution myrmekites of ideal quartz proportionality is not in itself evidence for the existence of ‘Schwantke's molecule’.
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    Electronic ISSN: 1469-5081
    Topics: Geosciences
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  • 8
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    Comparative petrography of deformed and undeformed migmatites from the Grampian Highlands of Scotland (1979)
    Cambridge University Press
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    Publication Date: 1979-11-01
    Description: SummaryFabrics in migmatites from Portsoy in the NE Dalradian are compared with those in paratectonic and pretectonic migmatites from deeper structural levels of the Northern Grampain Caledonides. Paratectonic leucosomes, from Portsoy and Mid-Strathspey, have weak biotite fabrics. They lack the biotite foliation which is strongly developed in pretectonic leucosomes from the Upper Findhorn area. In conjunction with the sequence of deformation, intrusion and metamorphism in Banffshire, the fabric data indicate that migmatization at Portsoy was paratectonic with respect to the local F, folding. Partial melts generated in the aureole of the pre-F3 basic intrusions were, in some rocks, still mobile during F3 and completely crystalline only after the formation of small F3 folds. Granitic leucosomes in Mid-Strathspey were formed within the time-span of a deformation episode. Petrographic measurements show that these leucosomes have approximately minimum-melting compositions in Qz-Ab-An-Or, despite some deformation and retrograde alteration. They are comparable with the Portsoy migmatites in grain size and in complexity of leucosome shapes, and they are tentatively interpreted as products of incipient partial melting without dehydration of biotite.
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    Electronic ISSN: 1469-5081
    Topics: Geosciences
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  • 9
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    Authigenic albite in the Pendleside Formation (Dinantian) of northern England (1982)
    Cambridge University Press
    Details
    Publication Date: 1982-07-01
    Description: SummaryAuthigenic albite occurring as euhedral overgrowths up to 400 μm in size is a characteristic feature of the Pendleside Limestone in the Craven Basin of northern England. The albite is very pure, low-albite in keeping with other authigenic albites in carbonate rocks. The detrital cores of the albites are angular plagioclase grains of approximately An20 composition which are sometimes altered to kaolinite. The albite crystals with their detrital cores are frequently concentrated in discrete laminae, suggesting that the plagioclase cores may have been supplied by a basic volcanogenic source. This view is supported by geochemical studies of limestones which reveal significant correlation between K–Na, Na–Al and K–Al.Interstitial alteration of detrital components, in particular the reaction intermediate plagioclase → kaolinite + albite, was primarily responsible for albite authigenesis. The initial products of this reaction probably included smectite which fixed Mg2+ in the decomposing volcanic grains. Subsequent alteration of the smectite resulted in the formation of small microdolomite inclusions which are commonly seen in the authigenic albites. An equilibrium model in terms of Na+/H4 ratios and H4SiO4 activity is proposed for the silicate assemblages in the Pendleside Formation.
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    Topics: Geosciences
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  • 10
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    Garnet and associated minerals in the southern margin of the Menderes Massif, southwest Turkey (1984)
    Cambridge University Press
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    Publication Date: 1984-07-01
    Description: Assemblages with muscovite + quartz show a regular increase in grade from the Chlorite Zone at the base of the Lycian Nappe Complex to the Garnet Zone within the structurally underlying Menderes Massif. Biotite enters before garnet, which precedes oligoclase. Garnet-bearing assemblages in pelites are compared with those in re-equilibrated quartzofeldspathic gneisses, where garnet is unusually calcic (in one case approaching Gross50 Alm50). Local retrograde effects are noted but no evidence is found for a polymetamorphic record in the mineral compositions. Garnet zoning, with Mn decreasing outwards, is interpreted as growth zoning; Ca decreases outwards in pelite garnets but shows the reverse effect in the gneisses. Chloritoid is common but rarely coexists with biotite, and garnet + chlorite + paragonite is found rather than chloritoid + albite. Garnet-biotite geothermometry, corrected for the effect of Ca in garnets with up to 29 mole % grossular, indicates temperatures of 530±5O°C near the garnet isograd. As in other areas, an attempt at muscovite-paragonite geothermometry gives an anomalous result. Metamorphic pressure isconsidered in the light of (i) Mn/Fe partition between garnet and biotite, (ii) Ca content of garnet coexisting with plagioclase + muscovite + biotite, (iii) Na in actinolite coexisting with albite + chlorite + magnetite, and (iv) celadonite content of muscovite which, however, shows variation due to disequilibrium within a specimen and does not provide an accurate geobarometer. Comparisons with published studies indicate a strong similarity to the Barrovian Dalradian of Scotland and lead to a tentative pressure estimate of approximately 5 kbar.
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    Electronic ISSN: 1469-5081
    Topics: Geosciences
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