ALBERT

Notes: Abstract After a formal explanation of Mayer's enthalpy balance method as applied to biological reaction rates, the history of its application is traced from Rubner's dog to accounting for the energy of muscle contraction. The introduction of microcalorimetry allowed the method generally to be used for cells in vitro and now particular emphasis can be paid to the growth of cells for the production of therapeutically-important heterologous proteins. In these systems, enthalpy balance studies contribute to defining catabolic processes, designing media, understanding the mechanisms of growth and controlling cultures using heat flux as an on-line sensor of metabolic activity.

Notes: Abstract It is claimed, though not without dispute, that genetically engineered mammalian cells grow more slowly than their progenitor cells because the recombinant gene system causes a metabolic burden. This was found to be the case for CHO cells transfected with expression vectors forcytochrome b5. The slower growth was associated with lower metabolic activity measured by heat flux and mitochondrial activity (rhodamine 123 fluorescence). The calorimetric-respirometric ratio was similar for all cell types, implying that the greater fluxes of glucose and glutamine in the recombinant cells was channelled to biosynthesis. This demand probably restricted the supply of pyruvate to the mitochondria in these cells.

Notes: Abstract Microcalorimeters to monitor the heat dissipation of bench-scale animal cell cultures on line and in real time require a continuous circuit between the vessel measuring heat flow rate and the bioreactor. The modifications to the transmission lines and calorimetric heat exchanger were to: (i) reverse the usual upward direction of the cell suspension in the flow vessel to downwards; (ii) install an in situ washing/cleaning facility; (iii) use low diffusivity PEEK material; and (iv) maintain thermal equilibration by water-jacketing the transmission tubing. Chemical calibration showed that there was more than a 20% difference between the physical volume and the effective thermal volume. An appropriate thermodynamic system was defined in order to permit enthalpy balance studies.

Notes: Abstract 31P magnetic resonance spectroscopy studies were carried out on calf muscle of 144 normal male and female subjects age 20–83 years in order to investigate age-related changes in muscle metabolism. Compared to the young adults (20–29 years), oxidative capacity was higher in the children (6–12 years) and was significantly decreased in the elderly (70–83 years). In the adults, the intracellular pH change during exercise diminished with increasing age, resulting in higher calculated free [ADP] and possibly serving as an adaptive mechanism to stimulate mitochondrial ATP production. Children also had higher pH and [ADP] in exercise, but unlike results from the elderly, this was associated with higher oxidative capacity and more rapid metabolic recovery from exercise. (Mol Cell Biochem 174: 321–324, 1997)

Notes: Abstract We describe a model of mitochondrial regulation in vivo which takes account of spatial diffusion of high-energy (ATP and phosphocreatine) and low-energy metabolites (ADP and creatine), their interconversion by creatine kinase (which is not assumed to be at equilibrium), and possible functional 'coupling' between the components of creatine kinase associated with the mitochondrial adenine nucleotide translocase and the myofibrillar ATPase. At high creatine kinase activity, the degree of functional coupling at either the mitochondrial or ATPase end has little effect on relationships between oxidative ATP synthesis rate and spatially-averaged metabolite concentrations. However, lowering the creatine kinase activity raises the mean steady state ADP and creatine concentrations, to a degree which depends on the degree of coupling. At high creatine kinase activity, the fraction of flow carried by ATP is small. Lowering the creatine kinase activity raises this fraction, especially when there is little functional coupling. All metabolites show small spatial gradients, more so at low cytosolic creatine kinase activity, and unless there is near-complete coupling, so does net creatine kinase flux. During workjump transitions, spatial-average responses exhibit near-exponential kinetics as expected, while concentration changes start at the ATPase end and propagate towards the mitochondrion, damped in time and space. (Mol Cell Biochem 174: 29–32, 1997)

Notes: Abstract After discussing approaches to the modelling of mitochondrial regulation in muscle, we describe a model that takes account, in a simplified way, of some aspects of the metabolic and physical structure of the energy production/usage system. In this model, high-energy phosphates (ATP and phosphocreatine) and low energy metabolites (ADP and creatine) diffuse between the mitochondrion and the myofibrillar ATPase, and can be exchanged at any point by creatine kinase. Creatine kinase is not assumed to be at equilibrium, so explicit account can be taken of substantial changes in its activity of the sort that can now be achieved by transgenic technology in vivo. The ATPase rate is the input function. Oxidative ATP synthesis is controlled by juxtamitochondrial ADP concentration. To allow for possible functional ‘coupling’ between the components of creatine kinase associated with the mitochondrial adenine nucleotide translocase and the myofibrillar ATPase, we define parameters ϕ and ψ that set the fraction of the total flux carried by ATP rather than phosphocreatine out of the mitochondrial unit and into the ATPase unit, respectively. This simplification is justified by a detailed analysis of the interplay between the mitochondrial outer membrane porin proteins, mitochondrial creatine kinase and the adenine nucleotide translocase. As both processes of possible ‘coupling’ are incorporated into the model as quantitative parameters, their effect on the energetics of the whole cell model can be explicitly assessed. The main findings are as follows: (1) At high creatine kinase activity, the hyperbolic relationship of oxidative ATP synthesis rate to spatially averaged ADP concentration at steady state implies also a near-linear relationship to creatine concentration, and a sigmoid relation to free energy of ATP hydrolysis. At high creatine kinase activity, the degree of functional coupling at either the mitochondrial or ATPase end has little effect on these relationships. However, lowering the creatine kinase activity raises the mean steady state ADP and creatine concentrations, and this is exaggerated when ϕ or ψ is near unity (i.e. little coupling). (2) At high creatine kinase activity, the fraction of flow at steady state carried in the middle of the model by ATP is small, unaffected by the degree of functional coupling, but increases with ADP concentration and rate of ATP turnover. Lowering the creatine kinase activity raises this fraction, and this is exaggerated when ϕ or ψ is near unity. (3) Both creatine and ADP concentrations show small gradients decreasing towards the mitochondrion (in the direction of their net flux), while ATP and phosphocreatine concentration show small gradients decreasing towards the myosin ATPase. Unless ϕ = ψ ≈ 0 (i.e. complete coupling), there is a gradient of net creatine kinase flux that results from the need to transform some of the ‘adenine nucleotide flux’ at the ends of the model into ‘creatine flux’ in the middle; the overall net flux is small, but only zero if ϕ = ψ. A reduction in cytosolic creatine kinase activity decreases ADP concentration at the mitochondrial end and increases it at the ATPase end. (4) During work-jump transitions, spatial average responses exhibit exponential kinetics similar to those of models of mitochondrial control that assume equilibrium conditions for creatine kinase. (5) In response to a step increase in ATPase activity, concentration changes start at the ATPase end and propagate towards the mitochondrion, damped in time and space. This simplified model embodies many important features of muscle in vivo, and accommodates a range of current theories as special cases. We end by discussing its relationship to other approaches to mitochondrial regulation in muscle, and some possible extensions of the model.

Notes: Abstract With the increasingly competitive commercial production of target proteins by hybridoma and genetically engineered cells, there is an urgent requirement for biosensors to monitor and control on-line and in real time the growth of cultured cells. Since growth is accompanied by an enthalpy change, heat dissipation measured by calorimetry could act as an index for metabolic flow rate. Recombinant CHO cell suspensions producing interferon-γ were pumped to an on-line flow calorimeter. The results showed that an early reflection of metabolic change is size-specific heat flux obtained from dividing heat flow rate by the capacitance change of the cell suspension, using the on-line probe of a dielectric spectroscope. Comparison of heat flux with glucose and glutamine fluxes indicated that the former most accurately reflected decreased metabolic activity. Possibly this was due to accumulation of lactate and ammonia resulting from catabolic substrates being used as biosynthetic precursors. Thus, the heat flux probe is an ideal on-line biosensor for fed-batch culture. A stoichiometric growth reaction was formulated and data for material and heat fluxes incorporated into it. This showed that cell demand for glucose and glutamine was in the stoichiometric ratio of ∼3:1 rather than the ∼5:1 in the medium. It was demonstrated that the set of stoichiometric coefficients in the reaction were related through the extent of reaction (advancement) to overall metabolic activity (flux). The fact that this approach can be used for medium optimisation is the basis for an amino-acid-enriched medium which improved cell growth while decreasing catabolic fluxes.