ALBERT

Description: We present an analytic model to predict the H i mass contributed by confused sources to a stacked spectrum in a generic H i survey. Based on the ALFALFA (Arecibo Legacy Fast ALFA) correlation function, this model is in agreement with the estimates of confusion present in stacked Parkes telescope data, and was used to predict how confusion will limit stacking in the deepest Square Kilometre Array precursor H i surveys. Stacking with LADUMA (Looking At the Distant Universe with MeerKAT) and DINGO UDEEP (Deep Investigation of Neutral Gas Origins – Ultra Deep) data will only be mildly impacted by confusion if their target synthesized beam size of 10 arcsec can be achieved. Any beam size significantly above this will result in stacks that contain a mass in confused sources that is comparable to (or greater than) that which is detectable via stacking, at all redshifts. CHILES (COSMOS H i Large Extragalactic Survey) 5 arcsec resolution is more than adequate to prevent confusion influencing stacking of its data, throughout its bandpass range. FAST (Five hundred metre Aperture Spherical Telescope) will be the most impeded by confusion, with H i surveys likely becoming heavily confused much beyond z  = 0.1. The largest uncertainties in our model are the redshift evolution of the H i density of the Universe and the H i correlation function. However, we argue that the two idealized cases we adopt should bracket the true evolution, and the qualitative conclusions are unchanged regardless of the model choice. The profile shape of the signal due to confusion (in the absence of any detection) was also modelled, revealing that it can take the form of a double Gaussian with a narrow and wide component.

Description: We search for environmental dependence of the H  i mass function in the Arecibo Legacy Fast ALFA survey (ALFALFA) 70 per cent catalogue. The catalogue is split into quartiles of environment density based on the projected neighbour density of neighbours found in both Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS) and 2MASS Redshift Survey (2MRS) volume-limited reference catalogues. We find the Schechter function ‘knee’ mass to be dependent on environment, with the value of log ( M * /M ) shifting from 9.81 ± 0.02 to 10.00 ± 0.03 between the lowest and highest density quartiles. However, this dependence was only observed when defining environment based on the SDSS reference catalogue, not 2MRS. We interpret these results as meaning that the local environment is the dominant cause of the shift in M * , and that the larger scales that 2MRS probes (compared to SDSS) are almost irrelevant. In addition, we also use a fixed aperture method to probe environment, and find tentative evidence that H  i -deficiency depresses the value of M * in the highest density regions. We find no significant dependence of the low-mass slope on environment in any test, using either method. Tensions between these results and those from the literature, are discussed and alternative explanations are explored.

Description: We present a comprehensive model to predict the rate of spectroscopic confusion in H  i surveys, and demonstrate good agreement with the observable confusion in existing surveys. Generically the action of confusion on the H  i mass function was found to be a suppression of the number count of sources below the ‘knee’, and an enhancement above it. This results in a bias, whereby the ‘knee’ mass is increased and the faint end slope is steepened. For ALFALFA and HIPASS, we find that the maximum impact this bias can have on the Schechter fit parameters is similar in magnitude to the published random errors. On the other hand, the impact of confusion on the H  i mass functions of upcoming medium depth interferometric surveys, will be below the level of the random errors. In addition, we find that previous estimates of the number of detections for upcoming surveys with Square Kilometre Array-precursor telescopes may have been too optimistic, as the framework implemented here results in number counts between 60 and 75 per cent of those previously predicted, while accurately reproducing the counts of existing surveys. Finally, we argue that any future single dish, wide area surveys of H  i galaxies would be best suited to focus on deep observations of the local Universe ( z  〈 0.05), as confusion may prevent them from being competitive with interferometric surveys at higher redshift, while their lower angular resolution allows their completeness to be more easily calibrated for nearby extended sources.

Description: We search for environmental dependence of the H  i mass function in the Arecibo Legacy Fast ALFA survey (ALFALFA) 70 per cent catalogue. The catalogue is split into quartiles of environment density based on the projected neighbour density of neighbours found in both Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS) and 2MASS Redshift Survey (2MRS) volume-limited reference catalogues. We find the Schechter function ‘knee’ mass to be dependent on environment, with the value of log ( M * /M ) shifting from 9.81 ± 0.02 to 10.00 ± 0.03 between the lowest and highest density quartiles. However, this dependence was only observed when defining environment based on the SDSS reference catalogue, not 2MRS. We interpret these results as meaning that the local environment is the dominant cause of the shift in M * , and that the larger scales that 2MRS probes (compared to SDSS) are almost irrelevant. In addition, we also use a fixed aperture method to probe environment, and find tentative evidence that H  i -deficiency depresses the value of M * in the highest density regions. We find no significant dependence of the low-mass slope on environment in any test, using either method. Tensions between these results and those from the literature, are discussed and alternative explanations are explored.

Description: Context. Hickson Compact Group (HCG) 16 is a prototypical compact group of galaxies in an intermediate stage of the previously proposed evolutionary sequence, where its galaxies are losing gas to the intra-group medium (IGrM). The group hosts galaxies that are H I-normal, H I-poor, and centrally active with both AGNs and starbursts, in addition to a likely new member and a H I tidal feature of ∼160 kpc in length. Despite being a well-studied group at all wavelengths, no previous study of HCG 16 has focused on its extraordinary H I component. Aims. The characteristics of HCG 16 make it an ideal case study for exploring which processes are likely to dominate the late stages of evolution in compact groups, and ultimately determine their end states. In order to build a coherent picture of the evolution of this group we make use of the multi-wavelength data available, but focus particularly on H I as a tracer of interactions and evolutionary phase. Methods. We reprocess archival VLA L-band observations of HCG 16 using the multi-scale CLEAN algorithm to accurately recover diffuse features. Tidal features and galaxies are separated in three dimensions using the SlicerAstro package. The H I deficiency of the separated galaxies is assessed against the benchmark of recent scaling relations of isolated galaxies. This work has been performed with particular attention to reproducibility and is accompanied by a complete workflow to reproduce all the final data products, figures, and results. Results. Despite the clear disruption of the H I component of HCG 16 we find that it is not globally H I deficient, even though HCG 16a and b have lost the majority of their H I and almost 50% of the group’s H I is in the IGrM. The H I content of HCG 16d shows highly disturbed kinematics, with only a marginal velocity gradient that is almost perpendicular to its optical major axis. The tail of ∼160 kpc in length extending towards the southeast appears to be part of an even larger structure which spatially and kinematically connects NGC 848 to the northwest corner of the group. Conclusions. This study indicates that in the recent past (∼1 Gyr) galaxies HCG 16a and b likely underwent major interactions that unbound gas without triggering significant star formation. This gas was then swept away by a close, high-speed encounter with NGC 848. The starburst events HCG 16c and d, likely initiated by their mutual interaction, triggered galactic winds which, in the case of HCG 16d, appear to have disrupted its H I reservoir. The tidal features still connected to all these galaxies indicate that more H I will soon be lost to the IGrM, while that which remains in the discs will likely be consumed by star-formation episodes triggered by their ongoing interaction. This is expected to result in a collection of gas-poor galaxies embedded in a diffuse H I structure, which will gradually (over several Gyr) be evaporated by the UV background, resembling the final stage of the evolutionary model of compact groups.

Description: Context. We present the largest catalogue of HI single dish observations of isolated galaxies to date, as part of the multi-wavelength compilation being performed by the AMIGA project (Analysis of the interstellar Medium in Isolated GAlaxies). Despite numerous studies of the HI content of galaxies, no revision focused on the HI scaling relations of the most isolated L∗ galaxies has been made since Haynes & Giovanelli (1984, AJ, 89, 758). Aims. The AMIGA sample has been demonstrated to be almost “nurture free”, therefore, by creating scaling relations for the HI content of these galaxies we will define a metric of HI normalcy in the absence of interactions. Methods. The catalogue comprises of our own HI observations with Arecibo, Effelsberg, Nançay and GBT, and spectra collected from the literature. In total we have measurements or constraints on the HI masses of 844 galaxies from the Catalogue of Isolated Galaxies (CIG). The multi-wavelength AMIGA dataset includes a revision of the B-band luminosities (LB), optical diameters (D25), morphologies, and isolation. Due to the large size of the catalogue, these revisions permit cuts to be made to ensure isolation and a high level of completeness, which was not previously possible. With this refined dataset we fit HI scaling relations based on luminosity, optical diameter and morphology. Our regression model incorporates all the data, including upper limits, and accounts for uncertainties in both variables, as well as distance uncertainties. Results. The scaling relation of HI mass with D25 is in good agreement with that of Haynes & Giovanelli (1984), but our relation with LB is considerably steeper. This disagreement is attributed to the large uncertainties in the luminosities, which introduce a bias when fitting with ordinary least squares regression (as was done in previous works), and the different morphology distributions of the samples. We find that the main effect of morphology on the D25-relation is to increase the intercept towards later types, while for the LB-relation it is to flatten the slope. These trends were not evident in previous works due to the small number of detected early-type galaxies. Applying our relations to HI detected galaxies in the Virgo cluster we find that although the typical HI-deficiency is only ~0.3 dex, the tail of the distribution extends over an order of magnitude beyond that of the AMIGA sample. These results are in general agreement with previous studies of HI-deficiency in the Virgo cluster. Conclusions. The HI scaling relations of the AMIGA sample define an up-to-date metric of the HI content of almost “nurture free” galaxies. These relations allow the expected HI mass, in the absence of interactions, of an individual galaxy to be predicted to within 0.25 dex (for typical measurement uncertainties). These relations are thus suitable for use as statistical measures of the impact of interactions on the neutral gas content of galaxies.

Description: We estimate the cosmic number density of the recently identified class of HI-bearing ultra-diffuse sources (HUDs) based on the completeness limits of the ALFALFA survey. These objects have HI masses approximately in the range 8.5 〈 logMHI∕M⊙ 〈 9.5, average r-band surface brightnesses fainter than 24 mag arcsec−2, half-light radii greater than 1.5 kpc, and are separated from neighbours by at least 350 kpc. In this work we demonstrate that they contribute at most ~6% of the population of HI-bearing dwarfs detected by ALFALFA (with similar HI masses), have a total cosmic number density of (1.5 ± 0.6) × 10−3 Mpc−3, and an HI mass density of (6.0 ± 0.8) × 105 M⊙ Mpc−3. We estimate that this is similar to the total cosmic number density of ultra-diffuse galaxies (UDGs) in groups and clusters, and conclude that the relation between the number of UDGs hosted in a halo and the halo mass must have a break below M200 ~ 1012 M⊙ in order to account for the abundance of HUDs in the field. The distribution of the velocity widths of HUDs rises steeply towards low values, indicating a preference for slow rotation rates compared to the global HI-rich dwarf population. These objects were already included in previous measurements of the HI mass function, but have been absent from measurements of the galaxy stellar mass function owing to their low surface brightness. However, we estimate that due to their low number density the inclusion of HUDs would constitute a correction of less than 1%. Comparison with the Santa Cruz semi-analytic model shows that it produces HI-rich central UDGs that have similar colours to HUDs, but that these UDGs are currently produced in a much greater number. While previous results from this sample have favoured formation scenarios where HUDs form in high spin-parameter halos, comparisons with recent results which invoke that formation mechanism reveal that this model produces an order of magnitude more field UDGs than we observe in the HUD population, and these have an occurrence rate (relative to other dwarfs) that is approximately double what we observe. In addition, the colours of HUDs are bluer than predicted, although we suspect this is due to a systematic problem in reproducing the star formation histories of low-mass galaxies rather than being specific to the ultra-diffuse nature of these sources.

Description: Context. Asymmetries in atomic hydrogen (HI) in galaxies are often caused by the interaction with close companions, making isolated galaxies an ideal framework to study secular evolution. The AMIGA project has demonstrated that isolated galaxies show the lowest level of asymmetry in their HI integrated profiles compared to even field galaxies, yet some present significant asymmetries. CIG 96 (NGC 864) is a representative case reaching a 16% level. Aims. Our aim is to investigate the HI asymmetries of the spiral galaxy CIG 96 and what processes have triggered the star-forming regions observed in the XUV pseudo-ring. Methods. We performed deep optical observations at CAHA1.23m, CAHA2.2m and VST (OmegaCAM wide-field camera) telescopes. We reach surface brightness (SB) limits of μCAHA2.2m = 27.5 mag arcsec−2 (Cousins R) and μVST = 28.7 mag arcsec−2 (SDSS r) that show the XUV pseudo-ring of the galaxy in detail. Additionally, a wavelet filtering of the HI data cube from our deep observations with VLA/EVLA telescope allowed us to reach a column density of NHI = 8.9 × 1018 cm−2 (5σ) (28″ × 28″ beam), lower than in any isolated galaxy. Results. We confirm that the HI of CIG 96 extends farther than 4 × r25 in all directions. Furthermore, we detect for the first time two gaseous structures (∼106 M⊙) in the outskirts. The SDSS g - r colour index image from CAHA1.23m shows extremely blue colours in certain regions of the pseudo-ring where NHI 〉 8.5 × 1020 cm−2, whereas the rest show red colours. Galactic cirrus contaminate the field, setting an unavoidable detection limit at 28.5 mag arcsec−2 (SDSS r). Conclusions. At the current SB and NHI levels, we detect no stellar link within 1° × 1° or gaseous link within 40′ × 40′ between CIG 96 and any companion. The isolation criteria rule out interactions with other similar-sized galaxies for at least ∼2.7 Gyr. Using existing stellar evolution models, the age of the pseudo-ring is estimated at 1 Gyr or older. Undetected previously accreted companions and cold gas accretion remain as the main hypothesis to explain the optical pseudo-ring and HI features of CIG 96.

Description: This paper explores the effects of variable-depth geometry on the amount of noise reduction that can be achieved with acoustic liners. Results for two variable-depth liners tested in the NASA Langley Grazing Flow Impedance Tube demonstrate significant broadband noise reduction. An impedance prediction model is combined with two propagation codes to predict corresponding sound pressure level profiles over the length of the Grazing Flow Impedance Tube. The comparison of measured and predicted sound pressure level profiles is sufficiently favorable to support use of these tools for investigation of a number of proposed variable-depth liner configurations. Predicted sound pressure level profiles for these proposed configurations reveal a number of interesting features. Liner orientation clearly affects the sound pressure level profile over the length of the liner, but the effect on the total attenuation is less pronounced. The axial extent of attenuation at an individual frequency continues well beyond the location where the liner depth is optimally tuned to the quarter-wavelength of that frequency. The sound pressure level profile is significantly affected by the way in which variable-depth segments are distributed over the length of the liner. Given the broadband noise reduction capability for these liner configurations, further development of impedance prediction models and propagation codes specifically tuned for this application is warranted.

Description: A two-dimensional impedance eduction theory is extended to three-dimensional sound fields and peripherally varying duct liners. The approach is to first measure the acoustic pressure field at a series of flush-mounted wall microphones located around the periphery of the flow duct. The numerical solution for the acoustic pressure field at these microphones is also obtained by solving the three-dimensional convected Helmholtz equation using the finite element method. A quadratic objective function based on the difference between the measured and finite element solution is constructed and the unknown impedance function is obtained by minimizing this objective function. Impedance spectra educed for two uniform-structure liners (a wire-mesh and a conventional liner) and a hard-soft-hard peripherally varying liner (for which the soft segment is that of the conventional liner) are presented. Results are presented at three mean flow Mach numbers and fourteen sound source frequencies. The impedance spectra of the uniform-structure liners are also computed using a two-dimensional impedance eduction theory. The primary conclusions of the study are: 1) when measured data is used with the uniform-structure liners, the three-dimensional theory reproduces the same impedance spectra as the two-dimensional theory except for frequencies corresponding to very low or very high liner attenuation; and 2) good agreement between the educed impedance spectra of the uniform structure conventional liner and the soft segment of the peripherally varying liner is obtained.