ALBERT

Description: Forest landings are areas located adjacent to haul roads where harvested trees that were skidded from the cutblock are processed and loaded onto trucks. Soils on landings are often excessively compacted by heavy timber harvesting machinery and may take many years to recover from such disturbance. This study examined soil properties and tree growth on unrehabilitated landings (with and without natural regeneration) and adjacent naturally regenerated clearcuts in the central interior of British Columbia (BC), 23 yr after landing construction. Landings (both with and without natural regeneration) had less favorable conditions for tree growth than did clearcuts, including significantly greater surface soil bulk density and mechanical resistance (on some dates) and lower total porosity and concentrations of C and N. Landings without natural regeneration had the least favorable soil conditions, which may account for the lack of natural regeneration. Lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta Dougl. ex Loud. var. latifolia Engelm.) growing on portions of the landings did not differ in height from those growing in adjacent clearcuts. Site index, as estimated using the growth intercept method, did not differ between naturally regenerated landings (21.7 m) and clearcuts (22.0 m), suggesting that the soils may be equally capable of supporting productive forests. Key words: Forest soil disturbance, soil mechanical resistance, soil productivity, soil water content, natural regeneration

Description: The presence of potential microbial trace fossils (endolithic microborings) has been well documented in oceanic basaltic pillow lavas, hyaloclastites, tuffs, and transitional subglacial marine lavas in the past 30 yr. Despite their evident abundance in oceanic to subglacial environments, they have not been observed in continental basalts that were not erupted in marine or subglacial settings. To expand the record of putative endolithic microborings in volcanic rocks to nonmarine, continental lacustrine environments, we examined hydrovolcanic pyroclastic deposits in the Fort Rock volcanic field, central Oregon. This study presents the textures, mineralogy, and geochemistry of basaltic tuffs containing possible endolithic microborings comparable in morphology, size, and distribution to those described in earlier oceanic and subglacial basalt studies. We observed a variety of tubular and granular textures that show evidence of biogenic morphologies and behavior, and a primary geological context that expresses their age and syngenicity. Petrographic relationships with secondary phases (chabazite, nontronite, calcite) indicate that the construction of microtunnels occurred in saline, alkaline fluids at temperatures of 25–80 °C. In addition, positive correlations were observed between the extent of aqueous (abiotic) alteration and both the abundance of microtunnels and morphological type. These correlations suggest that microtunnels were more readily formed where there was greater abiotic alteration-fluid flux and that the resulting change in chemical composition of those fluids may have had a direct influence on the formation process or possibly the type of constructing microbe. This work adds to understanding of factors controlling microtunnel formation and is the first account of putative endolithic microborings in a continental lacustrine setting. This new information may also have implications in the search for habitable extraterrestrial environments, such as on Mars.

Description: On 28 October 2012, an M w  7.8 earthquake occurred off the west coast of Haida Gwaii, British Columbia. Although past large events at this margin reflect strike-slip motion between the Pacific and North American plates (e.g., 1949 M s  8.1), this earthquake involved low-angle thrust faulting with a slip direction almost perpendicular to the margin, a consequence of slip partitioning at this obliquely convergent margin. To refine regional source models, we investigated the coseismic and postseismic displacements using a network of Global Positioning System (GPS) sites. Coseismic movement at the campaign site closest to the coast and about 30 km from the epicenter is 115 cm to the south-southwest, with 30 cm of subsidence. The only continuously recording GPS station on Haida Gwaii at the time of the earthquake, about 80 km from the epicenter, provides a robust coseismic displacement estimate of 22 cm to the south-southwest. The coseismic results are consistent with a shallow-dipping thrust rupture underlying the Queen Charlotte terrace, immediately seaward of the Queen Charlotte fault. These results allowed us to update rupture models that were originally derived from seismic waveforms and tsunami data. Estimates of cumulative postseismic horizontal displacements over about one year from seven sites are up to 6 cm, with a systematic along-strike variation in azimuth from south-southwest to southeast from north to south in the study area. Besides viscoelastic stress relaxation, these postseismic trends may indicate afterslip on the deeper plate interface beneath northern Moresby Island and possibly aseismic slip along the Queen Charlotte or subparallel faults offshore of southern Moresby Island. Online Material: Figures of three-component daily position estimates from Bernese analysis at Global Positioning System tracking stations on Haida Gwaii and the adjacent mainland.

Description: To evaluate compaction and interstitial melt expulsion during cumulate formation, a 20 m cumulate section including the UG2 and UG3 chromitites from a 264 m drill core through the Upper Critical Zone of the Bushveld Complex (South Africa) has been studied. The cumulates in the studied section are as follows: 3 m plagioclase pyroxenite to pyroxenite, pegmatoid footwall pyroxenite at the lower contact to UG2, 0·7 m UG2 chromitite, 6·8 m pyroxenite, 0·24 m UG3 chromitite, 2·0 m plagioclase-rich pyroxenite changing locally to norite, the two 5 cm leader stringers UG3a and UG3b, and 7 m total of olivine pyroxenites grading into plagioclase pyroxenites. All pyroxenites are dominated by orthopyroxene (opx) and the cumulate sequence is topped by mottled anorthosite grading into norite. Stratigraphic concentrations of major and trace elements of 52 bulk-rock samples were determined. Bulk-rock Mg-numbers are 0·79–0·81 throughout the silicate cumulate units, and 0·40–0·46 in the chromitite layers. The stratigraphic distribution of six incompatible trace elements (K, Rb, Ba, Cs, Zr and Th) has been used to determine the amount of trapped liquid ( F TL ) or paleo-porosity in the cumulate rocks. Final porosities (volume fractions), based on averages from the six trace elements, are 0·06–0·33 in the pyroxenites. In chromitite layers, trapped melt fractions of 0·12–0·36 are calculated from incompatible trace element concentrations, but bulk SiO 2 concentrations and X-ray tomography yield 0·04–0·17 higher porosities. Hence, the bulk silicate fraction in the chromitites may not necessarily correspond to the trapped liquid fraction, as poikilitic opx was crystallizing while the silicate melt still equilibrated. Using a previously derived experiment-based model for compaction time scales, gravitationally driven chemical compaction in the UG2–UG3–pyroxenite section is calculated to occur within 1–10 years. This time frame corresponds to the times necessary to cool a 20 m layer by 10–50°C, the temperature interval argued to encompass the liquidus and almost complete solidification. Compaction within a decade can in fact easily develop the paleo-porosities indirectly observed today and is probably stopped by crystallization of the interstitial liquid. Contrary to previous assertions, melt expulsion from the cumulate pile does not hinder compaction; calculated permeabilities would allow for the migration of an order of magnitude higher amount of melt than has to be expelled from the 20 m pile of cumulate. The pegmatoid zones in the chromitite footwalls enriched in incompatible trace elements are consistent with a collection of interstitial melts expelling from the underlying compacting pyroxenites. Their entrapment below the chromitite layers suggests that these act as permeability barriers. This is in part due to their finer grain size compared with the pyroxenites, but is mainly due to the crystallization of large poikilitic opx during compaction.

Description: During opening of a new ocean, magma intrudes into the surrounding sedimentary basins. Heat provided by the intrusions matures the host rock, creating metamorphic aureoles potentially releasing large amounts of hydrocarbons. These hydrocarbons may migrate to the seafloor in hydrothermal vent complexes in sufficient volumes to trigger global warming, e.g., during the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum (PETM). Mound structures at the top of buried hydrothermal vent complexes observed in seismic data off Norway were previously interpreted as sediment volcanoes, and the amount of released hydrocarbon was estimated based on this interpretation. Here, we present new geophysical and geochemical data from the Gulf of California suggesting that such mound structures could in fact be edifices constructed by the growth of black smoker–type chimneys rather than sediment volcanoes. We have evidence for two buried and one active hydrothermal vent systems outside the rift axis. The active vent releases fluids of several hundred degrees Celsius containing abundant methane, mid-ocean ridge basalt–type helium, and precipitating solids up to 300 m high into the water column. Our observations challenge the idea that methane is emitted slowly from rift-related vents. The association of large amounts of methane with hydrothermal fluids that enter the water column at high pressure and temperature provides an efficient mechanism to transport hydrocarbons into the water column and atmosphere, lending support to the hypothesis that rapid climate change such as during the PETM can be triggered by magmatic intrusions into organic-rich sedimentary basins.

Description: Rebun Island with Hamanaka and Funadomari among the 43 documented archaeological sites and the environmental archive stored in the Lake Kushu sediment proves to be one of the key areas to study the interplay between ecology, climate and human activities. This paper focuses on the potential of palaeobotanical records from Rebun Island for improving the chronological control and understanding of late Quaternary climate changes and habitation environments of northern hunter-gatherers in the Hokkaido Region of Japan. A set of 57 radiocarbon dates of the RK12 core (Lake Kushu) demonstrates that it represents a continuous environmental archive covering the last c . 17,000 years. The RK12 pollen record reflects distinct vegetation changes associated with the onset of the lateglacial warming about 15,000 cal. yr BP and the cold climate reversal after c . 13,000 cal. yr BP. The onset of the current Holocene interglacial after c . 11,700 cal. yr BP is marked by a major spread of trees. The middle Holocene ( c . 8000–4000 cal. yr BP) is characterized by a major spread of deciduous oak in the vegetation cover reflecting a temperature increase. A decline of oak and spread of fir and pine is recorded at c . 2000 cal. yr BP. After c . 1100 cal. yr BP, arboreal pollen percentages decrease, possibly linked to intensified usage of wood during the Okhotsk and Ainu culture periods. The results of diatom analysis suggest marshy or deltaic environments at the RK12 coring site prior to c . 10,500 cal. yr BP and a brackish lagoon between c . 10,500 and 7000 cal. yr BP. A freshwater lake developed after 6500 cal. yr BP, likely reflecting sea level stabilization and formation of the sand bar separating the Kushu depression from the sea. Plant macrofossil analysis shows use of various wild plants and also domesticated barley during the Okhotsk and Ainu periods.

Description: Although alkali-alkali earth carbonates have not been reported from mantle-derived xenoliths, these carbonates may have a substantial role in mantle metasomatic processes through lowering melting temperatures. On the Na 2 Mg(CO 3 ) 2 –K 2 Mg(CO 3 ) 2 join only the Na-end-member eitelite ( R space group), was reported in nature. The K-end-member ( R m ) readily hydrates even at low temperatures, therefore, only baylissite, K 2 Mg(CO 3 ) 2 ·4H 2 O, has been observed. Because of the role of (K,Na)Mg-double carbonates in mantle metasomatism, we performed high P-T experiments on K 2 Mg(CO 3 ) 2 , (K 1.1 Na 0.9 ) 2 Mg(CO 3 ) 2 , and Na 2 Mg(CO 3 ) 2 . Structure refinements were done upon compression of single crystals from 0 to 9 GPa at ambient temperature employing synchrotron radiation. Fitting the compression data to the second-order Birch-Murnaghan EoS resulted in V 0 = 396.2(4), 381.2(5), and 347.1(3) Å 3 and K 0 = 57.0(10), 54.9(13), and 68.6(13) GPa for K 2 Mg(CO 3 ) 2 , (K 1.1 Na 0.9 ) 2 Mg(CO 3 ) 2 , and Na 2 Mg(CO 3 ) 2 , respectively. These compressibilities are lower than those of magnesite and dolomite. The KMg-double carbonate transforms into a monoclinic polymorph at 8.05 GPa; the high- P phase is 1% denser than the low- P polymorph. The NaMg-double carbonate has a phase transition at ~14 GPa, but poor recrystallization has prevented structure refinement. The parameters for a V-T EoS were collected at 25–600 °C and ambient pressure and are α 0 = 14.31(5) x 10 –5 K –1 and 16.73(11) x 10 –5 K –1 for K 2 Mg(CO 3 ) 2 and Na 2 Mg(CO 3 ) 2 , respectively. Moreover, fitting revealed an anisotropy of thermal expansion along the a - and c -axis: α 0 ( a ) = 2.84(6) x 10 –5 and 4.78(5) x 10 –5 K –1 and α 0 ( c ) = 10.47(11) x 10 –5 and 8.72(5) x 10 –5 K –1 for K 2 Mg(CO 3 ) 2 and Na 2 Mg(CO 3 ) 2 , respectively.

Description: We report on newly discovered mud volcanoes located at ~4500 m water depth ~90 km west of the deformation front of the accretionary wedge of the Gulf of Cadiz, and thus outside of their typical geotectonic environment. Seismic data suggest that fluid flow is mediated by a 〉400-km-long strike-slip fault marking the transcurrent plate boundary between Africa and Eurasia. Geochemical data (Cl, B, Sr, 87 Sr/ 86 Sr, 18 O, D) reveal that fluids originate in oceanic crust older than 140 Ma. On their rise to the surface, these fluids receive strong geochemical signals from recrystallization of Upper Jurassic carbonates and clay-mineral dehydration in younger terrigeneous units. At present, reports of mud volcanoes in similar deep-sea settings are rare, but given that the large area of transform-type plate boundaries has been barely investigated, such pathways of fluid discharge may provide an important, yet unappreciated link between the deeply buried oceanic crust and the deep ocean.