ALBERT

Description: Seed storage proteins (SSP) in cereals provide essential nutrition for humans and animals. Genes encoding these proteins have undergone rapid evolution in different grass species. To better understand the degree of divergence, we analyzed this gene family in the subfamily Chloridoideae , where the genome of teff ( Eragrostis tef ) has been sequenced. We find gene duplications, deletions, and rapid mutations in protein-coding sequences. The main SSPs in teff, like other grasses, are prolamins, here called eragrostins. Teff has - and -prolamins, but has no β-prolamins. One -type prolamin (1) in teff has higher methionine (33%) levels than in maize (23–25%). The other -type prolamin (2) has reduced methionine residues (〈10%) and is phylogenetically closer to α prolamins. Prolamin 2 in teff represents an intermediate between and α types that appears to have been lost in maize and other Panicoideae , and was replaced by the expansion of α-prolamins. Teff also has considerably larger numbers of α-prolamin genes, which we further divide into five sub-groups, where α2 and α5 represent the most abundant α-prolamins both in number and in expression. In addition, indolines that determine kernel softness are present in teff and the panicoid cereal called foxtail millet ( Setaria italica ) but not in sorghum or maize, indicating that these genes were only recently lost in some members of the Panicoideae . Moreover, this study provides not only information on the evolution of SSPs in the grass family but also the importance of α-globulins in protein aggregation and germplasm divergence.

Description: We took a rather unique approach to investigate the conservation of gene expression of prolamin storage protein genes across two different subfamilies of the Poaceae. We took advantage of oat plants carrying single maize chromosomes in different cultivars, called oat–maize addition (OMA) lines, which permitted us to determine whether regulation of gene expression was conserved between the two species. We found that -zeins are expressed in OMA7.06, which carries maize chromosome 7 even in the absence of the trans-acting maize prolamin-box-binding factor (PBF), which regulates their expression. This is likely because oat PBF can substitute for the function of maize PBF as shown in our transient expression data, using a -zein promoter fused to green fluorescent protein (GFP). Despite this conservation, the younger, recently amplified prolamin genes in maize, absent in oat, are not expressed in the corresponding OMAs. However, maize can express the oldest prolamin gene, the wheat high-molecular weight glutenin Dx5 gene, even when maize Pbf is knocked down (through PbfRNAi ), and/or another maize transcription factor, Opaque-2 (O2) is knocked out (in maize o2 mutant). Therefore, older genes are conserved in their regulation, whereas younger ones diverged during evolution and eventually acquired a new repertoire of suitable transcriptional activators.

Description: Enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli (EHEC) O26:H11/H – is the predominant non-O157 EHEC serotype among patients with diarrhea, bloody diarrhea, and hemolytic uremic syndrome (HUS) worldwide. To elucidate their phylogeny and association between their phylogenetic background and clinical outcome of the infection, we investigated 120 EHEC O26:H11/H – strains isolated between 1965 and 2012 from asymptomatic carriers and patients with diarrhea or HUS. Whole-genome shotgun sequencing (WGS) was applied to ten representative EHEC O26 isolates to determine single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) localizations within a predefined set of core genes. A multiplex SNP assay, comprising a randomly distributed subset of 48 SNPs, was established to detect SNPs in 110 additional EHEC O26 strains. Within approximately 1 Mb of core genes, WGS resulted in 476 high-quality bi-allelic SNP localizations. Forty-eight of these were subsequently investigated in 110 EHEC O26 and four different SNP clonal complexes (SNP-CC) were identified. SNP-CC2 was significantly associated with the development of HUS. Within the subsequently established evolutionary model of EHEC O26, we dated the emergence of human EHEC O26 to approximately 19,700 years ago and demonstrated a recent evolution within humans into the 4 SNP-CCs over the past 1,650 years. WGS and subsequent SNP typing enabled us to gain new insights into the evolution of EHEC O26 suggesting a common theme in this EHEC group with analogies to EHEC O157. In addition, the SNP-CC analysis may help to assess a risk in infected individuals for the progression to HUS and to implement more specific infection control measures.

Description: Rice wine fermentation represents a unique environment for the evolution of the budding yeast, Saccharomyces cerevisiae . To understand how the selection pressure shaped the yeast genome and gene regulation, we determined the genome sequence and transcriptome of a S. cerevisiae strain YHJ7 isolated from Chinese rice wine (Huangjiu), a popular traditional alcoholic beverage in China. By comparing the genome of YHJ7 to the lab strain S288c, a Japanese sake strain K7, and a Chinese industrial bioethanol strain YJSH1, we identified many genomic sequence and structural variations in YHJ7, which are mainly located in subtelomeric regions, suggesting that these regions play an important role in genomic evolution between strains. In addition, our comparative transcriptome analysis between YHJ7 and S288c revealed a set of differentially expressed genes, including those involved in glucose transport (e.g., HXT 2, HXT7 ) and oxidoredutase activity (e.g., AAD 10, ADH 7). Interestingly, many of these genomic and transcriptional variations are directly or indirectly associated with the adaptation of YHJ7 strain to its specific niches. Our molecular evolution analysis suggested that Japanese sake strains (K7/UC5) were derived from Chinese rice wine strains (YHJ7) at least approximately 2,300 years ago, providing the first molecular evidence elucidating the origin of Japanese sake strains. Our results depict interesting insights regarding the evolution of yeast during rice wine fermentation, and provided a valuable resource for genetic engineering to improve industrial wine-making strains.

Description: Hybrid speciation appears to be rare in animals, yet characterization of possible examples offers to shed light on the genomic consequences of this unique phenomenon, as well as more general processes such as the role of adaptation in speciation. Here, we first generate transcriptome assemblies for a putative hybrid butterfly species, Papilio appalachiensis , its parental species, P. glaucus and P. canadensis , and an outgroup, P. polytes . Then, we use these data to infer genome-wide patterns of introgression and genomic mosaicism using both phylogenetic and population genetic approaches. Our results reveal that there is little genetic divergence among all three of the focal species, but the subset of gene trees that strongly support a specific tree topology suggest widespread sharing of genetic variation between P. appalachiensis and both parental species, likely as a result of hybrid speciation. We also find evidence for substantial shared genetic variation between P. glaucus and P. canadensis, which may be due to gene flow or ancestral variation. Consistent with previous work, we show that P. applachiensis is more similar to P. canadensis at Z-linked genes and more similar to P. glaucus at mitochondrial genes. We also identify a variety of targets of adaptive evolution, which appear to be enriched for traits that are likely to be important in the evolution of this butterfly system, such as pigmentation, hormone sensitivity, developmental processes, and cuticle formation. Overall, our results provide a genome-wide portrait of divergence and introgression associated with adaptation and speciation in an iconic butterfly radiation.

Description: Horizontal gene transfer (HGT) of operational genes has been widely reported in prokaryotic organisms. However, informational genes such as those involved in transcription and translation processes are very difficult to be horizontally transferred, as described by Woese’s complexity hypothesis. Here, we analyzed all of the completed prokaryotic genome sequences (2,143 genomes) in the NCBI (National Center for Biotechnology Information) database, scanned for genomes with high intragenomic heterogeneity of 16S rRNA gene copies, and explored potential HGT events of ribosomal RNA genes based on the phylogeny, genomic organization, and secondary structures of the ribosomal RNA genes. Our results revealed 28 genomes with relatively high intragenomic heterogeneity of multiple 16S rRNA gene copies (lowest pairwise identity 〈98.0%), and further analysis revealed HGT events and potential donors of the heterogeneous copies (such as HGT from Chlamydia suis to Chlamydia trachomatis ) and mutation events of some heterogeneous copies (such as Streptococcus suis JS14). Interestingly, HGT of the 16S rRNA gene only occurred at intragenus or intraspecies levels, which is quite different from the HGT of operational genes. Our results improve our understanding regarding the exchange of informational genes.