ALBERT

Note: In kyrillischer Schrift

Note: Table of Contents List of figures, tables, appendices Introduction Methods Locations of the transects Site factors Soil Chemical properties Soil pH Cations NO3 Total P and SO4 Vegetation sampling Results Discussion Conclusions Acknowledgements References Figures Tables Appendices

Note: Contents 1 Scope / G. Matthess 2 Polar Organic Substances and Their Role in the Water-Saturated and -Unsaturated Zones 2.0 Introduction / F.H. Frimmel 2.1 Isolation Procedures and Characterization Methods 2.1.1 Isolation and General Characterization of Organic Acids from Pore Water / F.H. Frimmel 2.1.2 Isolation and Characterization of Soil Humic Matter / W. Finger, B. Post and H. Klamberg 2.1.3 Isolation and Characterization of Organic Substancesin Ground Water and Sediments / F. Selenka and A. Hack 2.1.4 Chromatographie Characterization of the Acid-Soluble Part of Humic Substances / F.H. Frimmel 2.1.5 Spectroscopic Characterization of Humic Substances in the Ultraviolet and Visible Region and by Infrared Spectroscopy / G. Abbt-Braun 2.1.6 Temperature-Programmed/Time-Resolved Pyrolysis Field lonization Mass Spectrometry - a New Method for the Characterization of Humic Substances / H.-R. Schulten 2.1.7 Interpretation of the Pyrolysis Products of Isolated Humic and Fulvic Acids / G. Abbt-Braun 2.1.8 Characterization of Isolated Humic Material by 13C Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy /J. Buddrus and P. Burba 2.1.9 Characterization of Humic Substances Extracted by Organic Solvents / B. Post and H. Klamberg 2.2 Interaction of Inorganics with Humic Substances 2.2.1 Investigation of Metal Complexation by Polarography and Fluorescence Spectroscopy / F.H. Frimmel 2.2.2 Determination of Complexation Equilibria by the Ion-Exchange Method / W. Finger and H. Klamberg 2.2.3 Sorption of Metals on Humic Material / R. Becker and H. Klamberg 2.2.4 Interactions of Humic Substances with Iodine / K. G. Heumann and C. Reifenhäuser 2.2.5 Experiments on the Influence of Organic Ligands upon Kinetics of Feldspar Weathering / A. Petersen, G. Matthess and D. Schenk 2.3 Characterization of Some Organic Acids in the Subsurface of the Sandhausen Ecosystem / T. Cordt and H. Kussmaul 2.3.4 Organic Acids 2.3.5 Conclusions 3 Carbonate Systems 3.0 Introduction / E. Usdowski 3.1 Dissolution Kinetics in the Generation of Carbonate Ground Waters 3.1.1 Theoretical and Experimental Results of the Kinetics of Calcite Dissolution and Precipitation / W. Dreybrodt 3.1.2 Field Measurements and Laboratory Experiments on Calcite Dissolution Kinetics of Natural Porous Media / J. Baumann and H.D. Schulz 3.2 Field Studies on Subsurface Water of Selected Sites / B. Merkel and J. Grossmann 3.2.1 Pore Water Sampling in Carbonate Terrains 3.2.2 Variation of Inorganic Carbon in the Unsaturated Zone of a Carbonate Gravel System / L. Eichinger and B. Merkel 3.2.3 Isotope Geochemistry of the Subsurface Carbonate System in Sandhausen and Bocholt / H. Dörr, W. Leuchs, P. Obermann, W. Regenberg and C. Sonntag 3.2.4 Application of Stable Carbon and Sulfur Isotope Models to the Development of Ground Water in a Limestone-Dolomite-Anhydrite-Gypsum Area / K.W. Schaefer and E. Usdowski 3.2.5 A dissolution Front at the Contact of Sandsto Marly Limestone Aquifers / H.R. Langguth and R. Schulz 3.2.6 Carbonate Rock Dissolution Under Intermediate System Conditions / J. Michaelis 3.3 Alteration in Karst Systems 3.3.1 Mineralogy and Hydrogeochemistry of the Gypsum Karst of Foum Tatahouine, South Tunisia / W. Smykatz-Kloss, H. Hötzl and H. Kössl 3.3.2 Dedolomitization and Salt Formationin a Semi-Arid Environment / W. Smykatz-Kloss, and J. Goebelbecker 3.3.3 Transformation Processes in Paleokarst Sediments and Chemistry of Modern Waters in the Aladag Region, Turkey / M. Cevrini and W. Echle 4 Silicate Systems 4.0 Introduction / G. Matthess 4.1 Redox Reactions in the Subsurface 4.1.1 Anoxic Reaction Zones in an Aquifer Influenced by Increasing Nitrate and Sulfate Contents / W. Leuchs and P. Obermann 4.1.2 Nitrogen and Oxygen Isotopes as Indicators for Nitrification and Denitrification / H.-L. Schmidt, S. Voerkelius and A. Amberger 4.1.3 Redox Conditions and Microbial Sulfur Reactions in the Fuhrberger Field Sandy Aquifer / J. Böttcher, O. Strebet and W. Kölle 4.1.4 Influence of Fine-Grained Cover Beds on the Chemistry of Shallow Ground Water / G. Ebhardt and P. Fritsch 4.1.5 Hydrogeochemical Processes During the Passage of Surface Water and Ground Water Through Genetically Different Organic Sediments / H. Brühl, A. Moschick and H. Verleger 4.1.6 Hydrochemical Phenomena in the Dorsten Leakage System / M. Hoffmann, H.R. Langguth and J. Larue 4.1.7 Hydrogeochemical Processes in the Hamburg Deep Aquifer System / E.P. Loehnert, W. Bauhus and C. Sonntag 4.2 Rock-Water Interaction 4.2.1 Aluminium Speciation in Acid Soil Water and Ground Water / G. Dietze and B. Ulrich 4.2.2 Mineral-Pore Water Interaction in Two Soil Types on Pleistocene Sediments at Hamburg / F. Sztuka and I. Valeton 4.2.3 Subsurface Hydrochemical Reactions in the Sandhausen Forest Ecosystem / H. Jacob, W. Regenberg and C. Sonntag 4.3 Reaction Kinetics 4.3.1 Experimental Methods for Determining Dissolution Rates of Silicates - a Comparison / D. Schenk, G. Matthess, A. Dahmke and A. Petersen 4.3.2 Field Studies on the Kinetics of Silicate Minerals/Water Interaction / G. Matthess, A. Petersen, D. Schenk and A. Dahmke 5 Microbiology 5.0 Introduction / P. Hirsch 5.1 Characterization of the Natural Subsurface Environment 5.1.1 Morphological and Taxonomic Diversity of Ground Water Microorganisms / P. Hirsch, E. Rades-Rohkohl, J. Kölbel-Boelke and A. Nehrkorn 5.1.2 Methods of Studying Ground Water Microbiology: Critical Evaluations and Method suggestions / P. Hirsch, E. Rades-Rohkohl, J. Kölbel-Boelke, A. Nehrkorn, R. Schweisfurth, F. Selenka and A. Hack 5.1.3 Organic Substances in Ground Water and Sediments and Their Relationships to Microorganisms in a Sandy Aquifer / E Selenka and A. Hack 5.2 Microbial Activities 5.2.1 Observations on the Physiology of Microorganisms from Pristine Ground Water Environments / P. Hirsch 5.2.2 Formation and Transformation of Manganese Oxidation States by Bacteria / J. Gottfreund and R. Schweisfurth 5.2.3 Interactions Between Humic Acids and Microorganisms / G.-J. Tuschewitzki, B. Langer and H. Otremba 5.3 Microbiology of Selected Locations 5.3.1 Subsurface Microbial Activities in the Sandhausen Forest Ecosystem / R. Weyandt and R. Schweisfurth 5.3.2 Heterotrophic Bacterial Communities in the Bocholt Aquifer System / J. Kölbel-Boelke and A. Nehrkorn 5.3.3 The Natural Microflora of the Segeberger Forest Aquifer System / P. Hirsch and E. Rades-Rohkohl 5.3.4 Microbiological Observations of the Unsaturated Zone of a Quaternary Gravel Profile / I. Alexander, G. Freitag, J. Grossmann, Β. Merkel, P. Udluft and I. Ullsperger 6 Hydrogeochemical and Geochemical-Hydraulic Models and Model Concepts 6.0 Introduction / H.-D. Schulz 6.1 Hydrogeochemical Models and Concepts 6.1.1 Development of Secondary Permeability of a Fracture Aquifer in Carbonate Rocks: a Model / W. Dreybrodt 6.1.2 Some Aspects of Modelling the Carbon System in the Unsaturated Zone / B. Merkel, L. Eichinger and P. Udluft 6.1.3 Methodical Concepts in Silicate-Water Interaction - a Comparison of Results / A. Dahmke, G. Matthess, A. Petersen and D. Schenk 6.2 Combination of Transport and Geochemical Reactions 6.2.1 Water Movement and Geochemical Reactions in the Unsaturated Zone of Sands with Low Calcite Contents / H.-D. Schulz 6.2.2 Physical and Biochemical Processes Affecting Mass Transport in the Bocholt Aquifer System / C. Bugner and R. Mull 6.2.3 Tritium and 3He Measurements as Calibration Data for Ground Water Transport Models / H. Dörr, P. Schlosser, M. Stute and C. Sonntag 6.2.4 39Ar-, 85Kr-, 3He- and 3H Isotope Dating of Ground Water in the Bocholt and Segeberger Forst Aquifer Systems / M. Forster, H. Loosli and S. Weise 6.2.5 Modelling of Mass Balance and of Microbial Transformations in the Fuhrberger Feld Sandy Aquifer / O. Strebet, J. Böttcher and W.H.M. Duynisveld 6.3 Description of Geochemical Environments with Thermodynamic Equilibrium Models / M. Rolling and H.-D. Schulz 6

Note: Contents Acknowledgements Editor's Preface Translator's Preface Preface to Volume V of the Russian Edition, Salicaceae-Portulacaceae Preface to Volume VI of the Russian Edition, Caryophyllaceae-Ranunculaceae Abbreviations Used in Citing Floristic and Systematic Literature FAMILY XX / Salicaceae — Willow Family GENUS 1 / Populus - Poplar GENUS 2 / Chosenia - Chosenia GENUS 3 / Salix - Willow FAMILY XXI / Betulaceae — Birch Family GENUS 1 / Betula - Birch GENUS 2 / Alnaster - Green Alder GENUS 3 / Alnus - Alder FAMILY XXII / Urticaceae — Nettle Family GENUS 1 / Urtica - Nettle FAMILY XXIII / Polygonaceae — Buckwheat Family GENUS 1 / Oxyria - Mountain Sorrel GENUS 2 / Rumex - Dock, Sorrel GENUS 3 / Rheum - Rhubarb GENUS 4 / Koenigia - Koenigia GENUS 5 / Polygonum - Knotweed, Smartweed FAMILY XXIV / Chenopodiaceae — Goosefoot Family GENUS 1 / Chenopodium - Goosefoot GENUS 2 / Monolepis - Monolepis GENUS 3 / Atriplex - Orache GENUS 4 / Corispermum - Bugseed FAMILY XXV / Portulacaceae — Purslane Family GENUS 1 / Claytonia - Spring Beauty GENUS 2 / Montia - Blinks FAMILY XXVI / Caryophyllaceae — Pink Family GENUS 1 / Stellaria - Chickweed, Stitchwort GENUS 2 / Cerastium - Mouse-ear Chickweed GENUS 3 / Sagina - Pearlwort GENUS 4 / Minuartia - Minuartia GENUS 5 / Honkenya - Sea Sandwort GENUS 6 / Arenaria - Sandwort GENUS 7 / Moehringia - Groue Sandwort GENUS 8 / Merckia - Mercfo'a GENUS 9 / Spergula - Corn Spurry GENUS 10 / Spergularia - Sand Spurry GENUS 11 / Agrostemma - Corn Cockle GENUS 12 / Viscaria - Catchfly GENUS 13 / Silene - Campion GENUS 14 / Lychnis - Lychnis GENUS 15 / Coronaria - Ragged Robin GENUS 16 / Gastrolychnis - Gastrolychnis GENUS 17 / Gypsophila - Baby's-breath GENUS 18 / Dianthus - Pink FAMILY XXVII / Faeoniaceae — Peony Family GENUS 1 /Paeonia - Peony FAMILY XXVIII / Ranunculaceae — Buttercup Family GENUS 1 / Caltha - Marsh Marigold GENUS 2 / Trollius - Globe Flower GENUS 2a / Coptis - Goldthread GENUS 3 / Aquilegia - Columbine GENUS 4 / Delphinium - Larkspur GENUS 5 / Aconitum - Monkshood GENUS 6 7 Anemone - Anemone GENUS 7 / Pulsatilla - Pasque Flower GENUS 8 / Atragene - Alpine Clematis GENUS 9 / Oxygraphis - Oxygraphis GENUS 10 / Beckwithia - Beckwithia GENUS 11 / Batrachium - White Water Crowfoot GENUS 12 / Ranunculus - Buttercup GENUS 13 / Thalictrum - Meadow Rue APPENDIX I / Summary of Data on the Geographical Distribution of Vascular Plants of the Soviet Arctic TABLE 5 / Distribution of Vascular Plants of the Soviet Arctic, Salicaceae-Ranunculaceae Index of Plant Names

Note: Contents: Processes in Freezing, Frozen and Thawing Ground: 1. Thermal-physical processes in freezing and thawing ground; 2. Water transfer and ice formation in soils; 3. Physical-chemical and mechanical processes in freezing and thawing ground; 4. Structure and texture of freezing and thawing soils; 5. Cryogenic geological processes and phenomena; Part II. Composition, Cryogenic Structure and Properties of Frozen Rocks: 6. Formation of sedimentary materials in the permafrost regions (cryolithogenesis); 7. Composition and structure of frozen earth materials; 8. Properties of frozen soils; 9. Characteristics of the basic genetic types of frozen ground; Part III. Formation and Development of the Frozen Strata and Layers of Seasonal Freezing and Thawing: 10. Thermodynamic and climatic conditions for formation of the frozen layers; 11. Seasonal freezing and thawing of ground; 12. Development of the temperature regime and the thickness of the permafrost; 13. Taliks and groundwater in the permafrost zone; Part IV. Regional Features and Evolution of Permafrost: 14. Permafrost evolution in the Earth's history; 15. Zonal and regional features of present-day geocryological conditions in the territories of the former USSR; 16. Principles and methods for regional geocryological investigations; Part V. Economic Development of the Permafrost Regions: 17. The effect of different types of development on the natural geocryological environment; 18. Ensuring the stability of engineering structures in the permafrost regions; 19. Engineering geology in support of design, construction and operation of structures in the permafrost regions.

Note: Contents: 1 Global Distribution of Lakes / M. MEYBECK. - 1 Introduction. - 2 Background Material and Approaches to Global Lake Census. - 2.1 Data Used. - 2.2 Approaches to Global Lake Census. - 3 General Laws of Lake Distribution. - 3.1 Lake Density . - 3.2 Limnic Ratio. - 4 Distribution of Lakes of Tectonic Origin. - 5 Lakes of Glacial Origin. - 5.1 Lake Densities. - 5.2 Global Deglaciated Area. - 5.3 Total Number of Glacial Lakes. - 6 Fluvial Lakes. - 7 Global Distribution of Crater Lakes. - 8 Global Distribution of Saline Lakes. - 8.1 Coastal Lagoons. - 8.2 Salinized Lakes due to Evaporation. - 9 Global Lake Distribution. - 9.1 Extrapolation Approach. - 9.2 Lake Type Approach. - 9.3 Climatic Typology Approach. - 9.4 Lake Distribution in Endorheic Areas. - 9.5 Global Dissolved Salt Distribution in Lakes. - 10 Major Changes in Global Lake Distribution in the Geological Past. - 10.1 Lake Ages. - 10.2 Historical Changes. - 10.3 Postglacial Changes. - 11 Discussion and Conclusions. - References. - 2 Hydrological Processes and the Water Budget of Lakes / T. C. WINTER. - 1 Introduction. - 2 Hydrological System with Regard to Lakes. - 2.1 Interaction of Lakes with Atmospheric Water. - 2.2 Interaction of Lakes with Surface Water. - 2.3 Interaction of Lakes with Subsurface Water. - 2.4 Change in Lake Volume. - 3 Summary. - References. - 3 Hydrological and Thermal Response of Lakes to Climate: Description and Modeling / S. W. HOSTETLER. - 1 Introduction. - 2 Hydrological Response. - 3 The Hydrological Budget. - 4 Hydrological Models. - 5 Thermal Response. - 5.1 Energy Budget and Energy Budget Models. - 5.2 Models and Modeling. - 6 Use of Models to Link Lakes with Climate Change. - 7 Input Data Sets. - 8 Sample Applications. - 9 Summary. - References. - 4 Mixing Mechanisms in Lakes / D. M. IMBODEN and A. WÜEST. - 1 Transport and Mixing. - 2 Lakes as Physical Systems. - 3 Fluid Dynamics: Mathematical Description of Advection and Diffusion. - 3.1 Equations of Fluid Motion. - 3.2 Turbulence, Reynolds' Stress, and Eddy Diffusion. - 3.3 Vertical Momentum Equation. - 3.4 Nonlocal Diffusion and Transilient Mixing. - 4 Density and Stability of Water Column. - 4.1 Equation of State of Water. - 4.2 Potential Temperature and Local Vertical Stability. - 5 Energy Fluxes: Driving Forces Behind Transport and Mixing. - 5.1 Thermal Energy. - 5.2 Potential Energy. - 5.3 Kinetic Energy. - 5.4 Turbulent Kinetic Energy Balance in Stratified Water. - 5.5 Internal Turbulent Energy Fluxes: Turbulence Cascade. - 6 Mixing Processes in Lakes. - 6.1 Waves and Mixing. - 6.2 Mixing in the Surface Layer. - 6.3 Diapycnal Mixing. - 6.4 Boundary Mixing. - 6.5 Double Diffusion. - 6.6 Isopycnal Mixing. - 7 Mixing and Its Ecological Relevance. - 7.1 Time Scales of Mixing. - 7.2 Reactive Species and Patchiness. - 7.3 Mixing and Growth: The Search for an Ecological Steering Factor. - References. - 5 Stable Isotopes of Fresh and Saline Lakes / J. R. GAT. - 1 Introduction. - 1.1 Isotope Separatio During Evaporation. - 2 Small-Area Lakes. - 2.1 Seasonal and Annual Changes. - 2.2 Deep Freshwater Lakes. - 2.3 Transient Surface-Water Bodies. - 3 Interactive and Feedback Systems. - 3.1 Network of Surface-Water Bodies. - 3.2 Recycling of Reevaporated Moisture into the Atmosphere. - 3.3 Large Lakes. - 3.4 Large-Area Lakes with Restricted Circulation. - 4 Saline Lakes. - 4.1 Isotope Hydrology of Large Salt Lakes. - 4.2 Ephemeral Salt Lakes and Sabkhas. - 5 Isotopie Paleolimnology. - 6 Conclusions: From Lakes to Oceans. - References. - 6 Exchange of Chemicals Between the Atmosphere and Lakes / P. VLAHOS, D. MACKAY, S. J. EISENREICH, and KC. HORNBUCKLE. - 1 Introduction. - 2 Air-Water Partitioning Equilibria. - 3 Diffusion Between Water and Air. - 4 Volatilization and Absorption: Double-Resistance Approach. - 5 Factors Affecting Mass-Transfer Coefficients. - 6 Partitioning of Chemical to Paniculate Matter in Air and Water. - 6.1 Air. - 6.2 Water. - 7 Atmospheric Deposition Processes. - 7.1 Dry Deposition. - 7.2 Wet Deposition. - 8 Specimen Calculation. - 8.1 Step 1: Physicochemical Properties. - 8.2 Step 2: Mass-Transfer Coefficients. - 8.3 Step 3: Sorption in Air and Water. - 8.4 Step 4: Equilibrium Status. - 8.5 Step 5: Volatilization and Deposition Rates. - 9 Role of Air-Water Exchange in Lake Mass Balances. - 10 Case Studies. - 10.1 Mass Balance on Siskiwit Lake, Isle Royale. - 10.2 Mass Balance on Lake Superior. - 10.3 Air-Water Exchange in Green Bay, Lake Michigan. - 10.4 Air-Water Exchange in Lake Superior. - 11 Conclusions. - References. - 7 Atmospheric Depositions: Impact of Acids on Lakes / W. STUMM and J. SCHNOOR. - Abstract. - 1 Introduction: Anthropogenic Generation of Acidity. - 1.1 Genesis of Acid Precipitation. - 2 Acidity and Alkalinity: Neutralizing Capacities. - 2.1 Transfer of Acidity (or Alkalinity) from Pollution Through the Atmosphere to Ecosystems. - 3 Acidification of Aquatic and Terrestrial Ecosystems. - 3.1 Disturbance of H+ Balance from Temporal or Spatial Decoupling of the Production and Mineralization of the Biomass. - 3.2 In Situ H+ Ion Neutralization in Lakes. - 3.3 Krug and Frink Revisited. - 4 Brønsted Acids and Lewis Acids: Pollution by Heavy Metals, as Influenced by Acidity. - 4.1 Cycling of Metals. - 4.2 Pb in Soils. - 5 Impact of Acidity on Ecology in Watersheds. - 5.1 Soils. - 5.2 Lakes. - 5.3 Nitrogen Saturation of Forests. - 6 Critical Loads. - 6.1 Critical Load Maps. - 6.2 Models for Critical Load Evaluation. - 7 Case Studies. - 7.1 Chemical Weathering of Crystalline Rocks in the Catchment Area of Acidic Ticino Lakes, Switzerland. - 7.2 Watershed Manipulation Project at Bear Brooks, Maine. - 8 Summary. - References. - 8 Redox-Driven Cycling of Trace Elements in Lakes / J. HAMILTON-TAYLOR and W. DAVISON. - 1 Introduction. - 2 Major Biogeochemical Cycles and Pathways. - 3 Iron and Manganese. - 3.1 Transformations and Cycling. - 3.2 Iron and Manganese Compounds as Carrier Phases. - 4 Sediment-Water Interface. - 4.1 Diffusive Flux from Sediments. - 4.2 Evidence of Little or No Diffusive Efflux from Sediments. - 4.3 Transient Remobilization. - 4.4 Diffusive Flux into Sediments. - 5 Pathways Involving Redox Reactions Directly: Case Studies. - 5.1 Arsenic. - 5.2 Chromium. - 5.3 239,240Pu. - 5.4 Selenium 6 Pathways Involving Redox Reactions Indirectly: Case Studies. - 6.1 137Cs. - 6.2 Stable Pb, 210Pb, and 210Po. - 6.3 Zinc. - 7 Summary and Conclusions. - References. - 9 Comparative Geochemistry of Marine Saline Lakes / F. T. MACKENZIE, S. VINK, R. WOLLAST, and L. CHOU. - 1 Introduction. - 2 General Characteristics of Marine Saline Lakes. - 3 Comparative Sediment-Pore-Water Reactions. - 3.1 Mangrove Lake, Bermuda. - 3.2 Solar Lake, Sinai. - 4 Conclusions. - References. - 10 Organic Matter Accumulation Records in Lake Sediments / P. A. MEYERS and R. ISHIWATARI. - 1 Introduction. - 1.1 Significance of Organic Matter in Lake Sediments. - 1.2 Origins of Organic Matter to Lake Sediments. - 1.3 Alterations of Organic Matter During Deposition. - 1.4 Similarities and Differences Between Organic Matter in Sediments of Lakes and Oceans. - 1.5 Dating of Lake-Sediment Records. - 2 Indicators of Sources and Alterations of Total Organic Matter in Lake Sediments. - 2.1 Source Information Preserved in C/N Ratios of Sedimentary Organic Matter. - 2.2 Source Information from Carbon-Stable Isotopic Compositions. - 2.3 Source Information from Nitrogen-Stable Isotopic Compositions. - 3 Origin and Alterations of Humic Substances. - 4 Sources and Alterations of Lipid Biomarkers. - 4.1 Alteration of Lipids During Deposition. - 4.2 Changes in Sources vs Selective Diagenesis. - 4.3 Effects of Sediment Grain Size on Geolipid Compositions. - 4.4 Source Records of Alkanes in Lake Sediments. - 4.5 Preserv

Note: Contents: Preface. - Symbols, units and numerical values. - 1. The nature and scope of meteorology. - 1.1. Meteorology in relation to other sciences. - 1.2. Variations in space and time. - 1.3. Applied meteorology. - 2. Physical properties of the atmosphere. - 2.1. Composition of dry air. - 2.1.1. Mean molecular weight. - 2.1.2. Dissociation and ionization. - 2.1.3. Escape to space of component molecules. - 2.2. Pressure, density and temperature. - 2.2.1. Definition of pressure. - 2.2.2. Values near sea level. - 2.2.3. Variations in the vertical. - 2.2.4. Diurnal fluctuations at upper levels. - 2.2.5. Horizontal pressure gradients. - 2.3. Water vapour. - 2.3.1. Humidity mixing ratio. - 2.3.2. Density of moist air. - 2.3.3. Saturation vapour pressure. - 2.3.4. Paths leading to saturation. - 2.3.5. Measurement of vapour pressure. - 2.3.6. Distribution of water vapour. - 3. Heat transfer. - 3.1. Radiation processes. - 3.1.1. Solar radiation: its energy distribution. - 3.1.2. The solar constant. - 3.1.3. Effect of the atmosphere and earth on solar radiation. - 3.1.4. Radiation from the earth and atmosphere. - 3.2. Convection. - 3.2.1. Adiabatic temperature changes. - 3.2.2. Adiabatic equation. - 3.2.3. Potential temperature: dry adiabatic lapse rate. - 3.2.4 Saturated adiabatic lapse rate. - 3.2.5. Stability and instability. - 3.3. Heat transfer in land and sea. - 3.3.1. Heating and cooling of soil. - 3.3.2. Heating and cooling of water. - 4. Condensation and precipitation. - 4.1. Microphysical processes. - 4.1.1 Condensation nuclei. - 4.1.2. Curvature and solute effects. - 4.1.3. Water-droplet clouds. - 4.1.4. Ice nuclei. - 4.1.5. Ice-crystal clouds. - 4.1.6. Precipitation from water clouds. - 4.1.7. Precipitation from mixed clouds. - 4.1.8. Thunderstorm electricity. - 4.2. Larger-scale processes. - 4.2.1. Surface cooling. - 4.2.2. Evaporation. - 4.2.3. Vertical motion. - 4.3. Cloud observations. - 4.3.1. Cloud genera: their heights and composition. - 4.3.2. Cloud recognition and general features. - 4.3.3. Effects of vertical wind shear. - 4.3.4. Cloud classification for forecasting. - 5. The tephigram. - 5.1. Construction of the diagram. - 5.1.1. Coordinates: area and energy. - 5.1.2. Isobars. - 5.1.3. Saturation mixing ratio lines. - 5.1.4. Saturated adiabatics. - 5.1.5. Height variation. - 5.2. Simple graphical computations. - 5.2.1. Height. - 5.2.2. Humidity elements. - 5.2.3. Condensation levels. - 5.2.4. Föhn effects. - 5.3. Precipitable water and precipitation rate. - 5.3.1. Formula and calculation. - 5.3.2. Precipitation rate. - 5.3.3. Water content of convection clouds. - 5.4. The effects of vertical motion on lapse rate. - 5.4.1. Unsaturated or saturated motion. - 5.4.2. Potential (convective) instability. - 5.5. Tephigram analysis. - 5.5.1. Latent instability. - 5.5.2. Air mass characteristics. - 6. Winds. - 6.1. Laws of motion and the earth's rotation. - 6.1.1. Newton's First and Second Laws. - 6.1.2. Nature of the earth's rotation. - 6.1.3. Effects of the earth's rotation: the Coriolis force. - 6.2. Inertial flow and geostrophic winds. - 6.2.1. Nature of inertial flow. - 6.2.2. Nature of geostrophic flow. - 6.2.3. Geostrophic wind equation. - 6.2.4. Wind and pressure near the equator. - 6.3. Gradient winds. - 6.4. Winds in the friction layer. - 6.5. Thermal winds. - 6.5.1. Vertical shear vector. - 6.5.2. Temperature control of the shear vector. - 6.5.3. Thermal wind equation and thickness charts. - 6.5.4. Hodographs and temperature advection. - 6.5.5. Jet streams. - 7. Instruments and observations. - 7.1. Routine surface observations. - 7.1.1. Pressure. - 7.1.2. Temperature and humidity. - 7.1.3. Precipitation and evaporation. - 7.1.4. Wind. - 7.1.5. Clouds and visibility. - 7.1.6. Sunshine and radiation. - 7.1.7. Ship observations. - 7.2. Upper air observations. - 7.2.1. Historical. - 7.2.2. The radiosonde: radar winds. - 7.2.3. Ozone measurements. - 7.3. World Weather Watch. - 7.4. Experiments in observation and interpretation. - 7.4.1. Pressure. - 7.4.2. Temperature and humidity. - 7.4.3. Evaporation and rainfall. - 7.4.4. Wind. - 7.4.5. Radiation. - 7.4.6. Topographical influences. - 8. Synoptic Meteorology. - 8.1. The surface weather map: an introduction. - 8.1.1. The plotting code. - 8.1.2. Pressure systems and features. - 8.1.3. Air masses. - 8.1.4. Fronts. - 8.2. Air mass characteristics. - 8.2.1. Classification. - 8.2.2. Modifications. - 8.2.3. Air masses over the British Isles. - 8.3. Frontal characteristics. - 8.3.1. The stability of a frontal surface. - 8.3.2. Equilibrium slope of a frontal surface. - 8.3.3. Frontal structure. - 8.4. Frontal depressions. - 8.4.1. The life cycle of a frontal depression. - 8.4.2. Cold front waves; depression families. - 8.4.3. Warm front waves. - 8.4.4. Secondaries at points of occlusion. - 8.5. Non-frontal depressions. - 8.5.1. Heat lows. - 8.5.2. Polar lows. - 8.5.3. Orographic lows. - 8.5.4. Tropical cyclones. - 8.5.5. Tornadoes. - 8.6. Anticyclones. - 8.6.1. General characteristics. - 8.6.2. Cold and warm anticyclones. - 8.7 Synoptic development. - 8.7.1. Convergence, divergence and vertical motion. - 8.7.2. Convergence and vorticity. - 8.7.3 Long waves. - 8.7.4. Circulation indices: blocking. - 8.8. Surface analysis. - 8.8.1. General. - 8.8.2. Representativeness of observations. - 8.8.3. METMAPS. - 9. Micrometeorology. - 9.1. The nature of airflow near the ground. - 9.1.1. Wind speeds over a uniform level surface. - 9.1.2. Flow within a fluid boundary layer. - 9.1.3. Shearing stress via the mixing length concept. - 9.1.4. The friction velocity u*. - 9.1.5. Interpretation of the mixing length concept. - 9.1.6. The wind profile equation in complete form. - 9.2. The influence of surface roughness on the wind. - 9.2.1. Roughness in the aerodynamic sense. - 9.2.2. Roughness in relation to shearing stress and mean wind speed. - 9.2.3. The drag coefficient CD. - 9.2.4. CD as a transfer coefficient. - 9.2.5. Effect of a change in surface roughness. - 9.3. Vertical transport by turbulence. - 9.3.1. Flux equations; use of electrical analogy. - 9.3.2. Heat flux and other calculations. - 9.3.3. Vertical temperature gradients in relation to turbulent exchange. - 10. The general circulation. - 10.1. General characteristics. - 10.1.1. Genesis and interactions. - 10.1.2. Time fluctuations. - 10.2. Observations. - 10.2.1. Time- and space-averaging. - 10.2.2. Tracers. - 10.3. Experiment and theory. - 10.3.1. The rotating vessel experiment. - 10.3.2. Conservation principles. - 10.3.3. Cellular models. - 10.4. Climatic zones. - 11. Weather forecasting. - 11.1. Historical survey. - 11.1.1. 1860-1920. - 11.1.2. 1920-1945. - 11.1.3. 1945-1960. - 11.1.4. 1960 onwards. - 11.2. Conventional forecasting. - 11.2.1. Pressure tendency. - 11.2.2. Making the forecast. - 11.3. Long-range forecasting. - 11.3.1. Statistical methods. - 11.3.2. Synoptic methods. - 11.3.3. Analogues. - 11.4. Numerical forecasting. - 11.4.1. The barotropic model. - 11.4.2. Later developments. - 11.5. Predictability and control. - 11.5.1. Short-range predictability. - 11.5.2. Medium-range predictability. - 11.5.3. Long-range predictability: climatic trends. - 11.5.4. Weather and climate modification. - Answers to Problems. - Subject Index. - The Wykeham Series.