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  • 1
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    Springer
    Mineralium deposita 32 (1997), S. 197-200 
    ISSN: 1432-1866
    Quelle: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Thema: Geologie und Paläontologie
    Notizen: Abstract Two botryoidal hematites from the qtz-fl-hem veins at the Nonnenmattweiher cirque (zone of Badenweiler-Lenzkirch, Südschwarzwald) were dated using the (U + Th)-He method. One hematite gives an Early Triassic age (234 ± 5 Ma) and the second straddles the Cretaceous/Jurassic time boundary (126 ± 4 Ma). The ages bracket the ∼entire age spectrum reported to date for Mesozoic vein-type mineralizations in the Schwarzwald. The maximum sedimentary overburden and associated palaeo-temperatures (〉130 °C) in the basement of the southern Schwarzwald during the Jurassic did not cause severe age-resetting of the hematites. This implies that both ages probably are formation ages rather than ages of cooling, provided that the 4He retentivities of both hematites are similar. The fact that two hematites from the veins at Nonnenmattweiher yield highly discordant Mesozoic ages suggests multiple hydrothermal activity during the Mesozoic. A previously published age of two adularia (∼155 Ma), intermediate between the hematite ages, supports this view.
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  • 2
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    Springer
    Mineralium deposita 32 (1997), S. 219-229 
    ISSN: 1432-1866
    Quelle: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Thema: Geologie und Paläontologie
    Notizen: Abstract The Elshitsa volcanic hosted massive sulphide deposit occurs in the central part of the Srena Gora metallogenic zone in Bulgaria. The gold-bearing massive sulphide mineralization is considered to be the product of an island arc volcano-plutonic process and hydrothermal activity that took place during the Late Cretaceous. In addition to the major gold-hosted opaque minerals such as pyrite, chalcopyrite, sphalerite and galena there are minor phases of tennantite, goldfieldite, Se-bearing aikinite, native silver and bornite in the massive sulphide lenses and stringer zones. Most of the sulphide minerals are Se-bearing. All of the six mineral assemblages that were deposited during the pyrite and copper-pyrite stages of mineralization are gold-bearing. The gold tenor as a rule is less than 1 g/t. Native gold and electrum occur as blebs or intergranular particles in the sulphide minerals. Gold in the early massive pyrite is of submicroscopic type (〈 0,1 μm) and of colloidal ori-gin. Pyrite deformation and recrystallization in the temperature range 250°–160 °C has led to Au and Ag migration to cracks and grain boundaries of the sulphide minerals. As a result of these process the native gold and electrum grain size increases from submicroscopic (〈 0,1 μm) in the early colloform pyrite to microscopic (0,1–100 μm) and macroscopic (〉 100 μm) in the late gold-sulphide assemblages. The electrum fineness in 41 individually studied grains varies between 780 and 992‰ with a mean of 895‰. Native silver was found in association with bornite. Cu, Te, Sb and Bi are the most common trace-elements in gold and electrum. The Cu-Zn-Pb association is most important as a Au-Ag-carrier. A model for gold behaviour during sulphide deformation is proposed involving coarsening of gold grain size from the earlier to the later sulphide mineral assemblages.
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  • 3
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    Springer
    Mineralium deposita 32 (1997), S. 205-218 
    ISSN: 1432-1866
    Quelle: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Thema: Geologie und Paläontologie
    Notizen: Abstract The Starra ironstone-hosted Au-Cu deposit in northwest Queensland, Australia, displays evidence of a polyphase history of late-post metamorphic, structurally controlled metasomatism. The mineralisation is hosted within several massive ironstone units which occur at a lithological contact of metamorphosed sandstone and siltstone sequences and foliated chlorite-biotite-magnetite schists. The ironstones strike north-south and occur as discontinuous lenses that cross cut the host rocks in places. Magnetite ironstone textures are generally massive in appearance, but relict deformed breccia and foliation textures are locally preserved. Sulphide ore textures are more brittle and consist of fine, pervasive brecciation of the ironstones and host rocks. Petrological and textural observations support a hydrothermal origin for both ironstone and mineralisation. Three dominant post-peak metamorphic paragenetic stages of alteration and mineralisation are recognised: (1) early widespread Na-Ca metasomatism consisting of albite-quartz-actinolite-scapolite, (2) localised K-Fe metasomatism consisting of biotite-magnetite-hematite- quartz-pyrite and (3) the mineralising stage consisting of anhydrite-calcite-hematisation of magnetite-pyrite-chalcopyrite-gold and extreme chloritisation of biotite. The Na dominant alteration occurs throughout the Eastern Fold Belt and for at least 50 km to the east and 150 km to the north of Starra. The ironstones were products of localised Fe-metasomatism associated with shearing and brecciation of previously Na-metasomatised host rocks. Gold and copper mineralisation resulted from the interaction of magnetite, a late oxidising fluid and an increase in pH. This produced variable hematisation of magnetite and caused the solubility of chloride-complexed gold to decrease dramatically. High gold:copper ratios can be explained in terms of the solubility differences of gold and copper in the thermochemical conditions that existed at Starra.
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  • 4
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    Springer
    Mineralium deposita 32 (1997), S. 243-249 
    ISSN: 1432-1866
    Quelle: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Thema: Geologie und Paläontologie
    Notizen: Abstract The lead isotopic composition of galenas from low-temperature veins of the Catalonian Coastal Ranges (NE Spain) displays a small but distinct range of values: 18.318 ≤206Pb/204Pb ≤ 18.678; 15.678 ≤207Pb/204Pb ≤ 15.767 and 38.534 ≤ 208Pb/204Pb ≤ 39.189. The data define a linear trend in the 208Pb/204Pb versus 206Pb/204Pb diagram that can be interpreted in terms of mixing of lead from different reservoirs. The lead appears to be derived from a solution that preferentially leached granites of Late-Hercynian age. Sulphur isotopic compositions of the galenas range from −8.5 to + 7.3‰ but variations in a single deposit are small (1–2‰), pointing to different sources of sulphur. In a δ34S versus 206Pb/204Pb plot no clear correlation trends appear. Lead isotope data from deposits of similar characteristics situated within the Hercynian orogenic belt as the Linares-La Carolina district (S Spain) and the Inglesiente-Sulcis area (Sardinia) show slight differences indicating a source area of similar lead isotopic composition. In the CCR and Linares-La Carolina districts, the main source of lead is related to the Hercynian granites of each area, although small contributions from metasediments cannot be ruled out. The contribution of lead from metasedimentary rocks is particularly seen in the Sardinian (Hercynian vein-type) ores.
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  • 5
    ISSN: 1432-1866
    Quelle: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Thema: Geologie und Paläontologie
    Notizen: Abstract The Kalyadi polymetallic copper deposit occurs within the Middle Archaean (≥3.0 Ga), medium-grade Kalyadi schist belt which consists predominantly of ultramafic-mafic schists interbedded with chemogenic chert, detrital high Al-Mg schists and siliceous schists. This sedimentary exhalative type (SEDEX type) ore-body is the only copper deposit hosted in cherts in the western Dharwar craton. The Kalyadi supracrustal rocks are intruded by tonalite-trondhjemitic gneisses (ca. 3.0 Ga) and granite (ca. 2.6 Ga). The Kalyadi copper deposit is polygenetic in nature. The primary ores represented by disseminations of pyrite ± linneite and chalcopyrite ± magnetite essentially along the bedding lamination of the metachert are referred to as the metamorphosed chert-sulphide rhythmites of a primary stratiform type. The ore is of low-grade and records imprints of at least two events of deformation. Pyrite is characterised by high-Co values (262–4524 ppm) and high–Co/Ni ratios (3.0–19.7). Rare earth element patterns of the primary ores and the host metacherts are identical, characterised by La enrichment, absence of Eu anomalies and flat to depleted HREE patterns with δ 34 S = −0.8‰. The secondary (remobilised) ores are structurally controlled occurring as veins and stringers discordant to the bedding lamination or schistosity. The constituent ores are chalcopyrite-pyrite-pyrrhotite with minor pentlandite. These sulphides with low-Co/Ni ratios (0.87–1.80), have either a strong positive or negative Eu anomaly and show slight HREE enrichment. The δ 34 S value ranges from +2.64 to −4.29‰. It is interpreted that the primary stratiform ores and the cherts were derived from volcanogenic hydrothermal fluids as syngenetic/chemical deposits in a deep sea environment. The secondary epigenetic mineralisation is related to subsequent migmatisation, deformational events and granitic activity.
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  • 6
    ISSN: 1432-1866
    Quelle: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Thema: Geologie und Paläontologie
    Notizen: Abstract In the northwestern part of the Kalahari manganese field low-grade carbonate-rich Mamatwan-type ore is altered to high-grade oxide-rich Wessels-type ore in association with normal faults. Mass balance calculations, based on the assumption that manganese was geochemically immobile, suggest that upgrading of the manganese ore can be attributed to leaching of Mg, Ca, CO2 and SiO2 from the sedimentary ore with residual enrichment of Mn. Hydrothermal alteration resulted in development of about 10 to 20% of secondary porosity in the ores and the orebed was compacted to two thirds of its original stratigraphic thickness.
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  • 7
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    Springer
    Mineralium deposita 32 (1997), S. 271-279 
    ISSN: 1432-1866
    Quelle: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Thema: Geologie und Paläontologie
    Notizen: Abstract Some of the Lower Pleistocene bentonites of Milos and Kimolos islands, Greece, are valued for their white colour and physicochemical properties. They contain opal-CT and, sometimes, zeolite along with smectite, and have been derived from the alteration of rhyolitic volcanic rocks. The Miloan white bentonites contain Tatatilla-type montmorillonite and beidellite. The Kimolian ones have Chambers-type montmorillonite. The alteration process involved removal of alkalis and uptake of Mg, probably from sea water. Si is either redistributed or partially removed. The Kimolian white bentonites have higher brightnesses, L* and whiteness index values, and lower yellowness index and ΔE*ab values compared with the Miloan ones. The variations in white colour are inversely related to the abundance of Fe oxides and anatase, the occurrence of Fe in the smectite structure and its oxidation state. The presence of silica minerals is not an important factor affecting colour, but is undesirable since it imparts high abrasiveness in commercial products. The formation of white bentonites of high quality requires the removal of alkalis and silica during alteration of acid volcanics in order to avoid crystallization of zeolites and opal-CT. Fe needs to be incorporated into the smectite structure. Such conditions are rarely attained.
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  • 8
    ISSN: 1432-1866
    Quelle: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Thema: Geologie und Paläontologie
    Notizen: Abstract Several F, Pb, Zn and Ba deposits are located in the province of Zaghouan in north-eastern Tunisia. They are hosted in Lower Liassic or Upper Jurassic reef limestones, and the overlying condensed Carixian phosphatic limestones and Campanian marls, respectively. The mineralization occurs in three types of orebodies: stratiform replacement heaps and lenses (Jebel Stah and Hammam Zriba), breccia fillings and dissolution void fillings (Sidi Taya) and lodes (Jebel Oust). More than one generation of fluorite is observed in the stratiform deposits. Microthermometric analyses of the inclusion fluids observed in fluorite and quartz show that the economic concentrations of fluorite have deposited from moderate to highly saline (12–22.5 wt% NaCl equivalents) hydrothermal (110–160 °C) mineralizing fluids at the center (Jebel Stah, Sidi Taya) and to the east of the province (Hammam Zriba). Late remobilizations, observed in the stratiform deposits, are related to the circulation of a warmer (up to 185 °C) but less saline (10 wt% NaCl equivalents) fluid (Jebel Stah) and more saline (12–22 wt% NaCl equivalents) fluid (Hammam Zriba). The highest temperature (up to 250 °C) and salinity (32–34 wt% NaCl equivalents) are observed to the west of the province of Zaghouan (Jebel Oust). Less saline (3–6 wt% NaCl equivalents) and moderately hot to hot fluids (up to 220 ± 20 °C) and rich in gaseous CO2 invade most of the ore deposits in later stages and give rise to the massive quartz within fractures at Jebel Stah. Chemical analyses of the fluids extracted from the inclusions occuring in fluorite show compositions dominated by the presence of Na+, Ca2+ and Cl− ionic species and allow the mean temperature of the fluids in the source reservoir to be estimated as 275 ± 25 °C. The circulation of the ore-forming fluids is triggered by a regional tectonic extensional phase which occurs within the post-Jurassic to ante-Miocene time interval. The deposition of the economic concentrations of fluorite resulted from the decrease in pressure and temperature of the hydrothermal brines (Jebel Oust), along with the increase in the dissolved calcium activity (Jebel Stah and Sidi Taya), or a decrease in salinity due to the mixing with a hot, less saline and Na-poor, Ca-rich fluid (Hammam Zriba). The mineralogical associations (CaF2, PbS, ZnS, BaSO4) hosted within carbonate rocks, the temperatures and the salinities of the fluids that gave rise to the more important ore deposits (110–160 °C and 12–22.5 wt% NaCl equivalents), their composition (Na, Ca, Cl) and the molar ratios between the major ionic species, as well as the presence of liquid hydrocarbons in the mineralizing fluids, show that the ore deposits of the province of Zaghouan belong to the carbonate-hosted F, Pb, Zn, Ba Mississippi Valley-type deposits.
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  • 9
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    Springer
    Mineralium deposita 32 (1997), S. 292-295 
    ISSN: 1432-1866
    Quelle: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Thema: Geologie und Paläontologie
    Notizen: Abstract The lead isotope composition of 32 lead glasses excavated from strata of the twelfth to early fifteenth century in six countries of NW Europe made the predominance of the Harz Mountains in this period of the Medieval European lead and silver production highly probable. Post-Variscan vein type galena, Devonian syngenetic hydrothermal ore (Rammelsberg) and blended ore from both deposits in the Harz were used. Our evaluation of 200 mining sites in Germany, Britain and Ireland also demonstrated that minor lead sources for lead glass were located in Bavaria/Bohemia and England. Lead ores from the Rhenohercynian orogenic belt in Germany are derived from rock sources close to the upper continental crust composition in 238U/204Pb of about 10 and Th/U of about 4. The ores in Central England originated from rocks with 238U/204Pb of about 11.
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  • 10
    ISSN: 1432-1866
    Quelle: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Thema: Geologie und Paläontologie
    Notizen: Abstract The 1000 km long Ok Tedi/Fly River system receives about 66 Mt/year of mining waste from the Ok Tedi copper-gold porphyry mine. Mine input has increased the suspended sediment load of the Middle Fly River about 5–10 times over the natural background. A significant yet unknown amount of copper-rich material deposits unevenly in the extensive tropical lowland floodplain. Recent alluvial sediments of the Fly River floodplain have copper contents of 620 mg/kg (±1σ: 430–900), whereas the regional background is 40 mg/kg (±σ: 25–60). This pattern is mirrored and enhanced by the gold dispersal pattern with a 7 ppb Au background versus a 140–275 ppb population in mine-derived material. Very high deposition rates (around 4 cm/y) of mine-derived sediment were determined in locations close to the creeks and channels which link the Fly River with the outer floodplain. A thin layer of 1–5 cm of copper-rich material (400–900 mg/kg Cu) was usually found on the bottom of drowned (tributary) valley lakes. Average dissolved copper content in waters of the inner floodplain is around 9 μg/l (±1σ: 5–14) as compared to unpolluted water from the outer floodplain with 〈 2 μg/l Cu. The present Fly River water, about 600 km downstream of the mine site, has concentrations of 17 ± 3 μg/l dissolved Cu.
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  • 11
    ISSN: 1432-1866
    Quelle: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Thema: Geologie und Paläontologie
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  • 12
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    Springer
    Mineralium deposita 32 (1997), S. 299-300 
    ISSN: 1432-1866
    Quelle: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Thema: Geologie und Paläontologie
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  • 13
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    Springer
    Mineralium deposita 32 (1997), S. 309-311 
    ISSN: 1432-1866
    Quelle: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Thema: Geologie und Paläontologie
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  • 14
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    Springer
    Mineralium deposita 32 (1997), S. 312-322 
    ISSN: 1432-1866
    Quelle: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Thema: Geologie und Paläontologie
    Notizen: Abstract An examination of the important South African mineral resources clearly demonstrates that, omitting hydrocarbon fuels, South Africa (RSA) contains the greatest value of mineral wealth per square kilometre of surface area on Earth. The reserves of all these commodities are examined in a global context, comparing also their production and exports (1985–1994), as well as new events that have influenced their holdings situation and their exploitation over the last ten years up to 1994 or beyond. The mineral industry's current input to state revenue is also examined, along with continuing discussions to bring about the necessary alterations in the mineral and mining laws and policies in the RSA, in the post-apartheid environment. Mineral wealth is greatly dependant on secure land-tenure, so that this and the environmental aspects of mineral exploration and exploitation are also appraised. The brief examination of labour and industrial relations is also very pertinent at this stage of the political and economic development in the RSA. Finally, the future outlook for the RSA mining industry is reviewed.
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  • 15
    ISSN: 1432-1866
    Quelle: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Thema: Geologie und Paläontologie
    Notizen: Abstract Analyses of stream sediment and soil samples from the Bushveld Complex, South Africa have revealed enhanced precious metal concentrations, which can be related both to mining activities and the presence of hidden concentrations of platinum-group elements (PGEs) and gold. The economically important PGE deposits hosted by the Upper Critical Zone of the Rustenburg Layered Suite are revealed by a high PGE and Au content in the overlying soils. A second zone of elevated precious metal concentrations straddles the boundary between the Main and Upper Zones and has to date been traced for more than 100 km. This zone follows the igneous layering of the Rustenburg Layered Suite and is offset by the Brits Graben. It is therefore thought to be the reflection of a magmatic PGE-Au mineralisation.
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  • 16
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    Springer
    Mineralium deposita 32 (1997), S. 323-334 
    ISSN: 1432-1866
    Quelle: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Thema: Geologie und Paläontologie
    Notizen: Abstract Mafic and ultramafic magmatism played an important role in the 3.5 Ga long history of the Kaapvaal craton. The oldest (3.5 Ga) greenstone belts contain mafic and ultramafic volcanics that erupted in an oceanic environment, probably in oceanic plateaus. Then followed a series of continental flood basalts, from the ∼3.4 Ga old Commondale and Nondweni sequences, to the 180 Ma Karoo basalts. The history was dominated, however, by the emplacement, 2.1 Ga ago, of the Bushveld complex, an enormous layered ultramafic-mafic-felsic intrusion. Three types of ore deposits might be found in such a sequence: Ni-Cu-Fe sulfides in komatiites of the greenstone belts; “Noril'sk-type” Ni-Cu-PGE deposits in the Karoo and other flood basalts; and deposits of Cr, platinum-group elements (PGE) and V in the Bushveld and other layered intrusions. Only the latter are present. It is tempting to attribute the absence of komatiite-hosted deposits to the specific character of the ultramafic rocks in Kaapvaal greenstone belts, which are older that the 2.7 Ga komatiites that host deposits in Australia, Canada and Zimbabwe, and are of the less-common “Al-depleted” type. However, a review of mantle melting processes found no obvious connection between the character of the mantle melts and their capacity to form ore deposits. The lack of this type of deposit may be due to differences in the volcanic environment, or it may be fortuitous (the Barberton and other belts are small and could fit into deposit-free parts of the much larger Australian or Canadian belts). Still more puzzling is the absence of Noril'sk-type deposits. The Karoo and older flood basalt sequences appear to contain all the important elements of the volcanic sequences that host the Siberian deposits. It is now recognised that these deposits formed through the segregation of sulfide from magma flowing rapidly through conduits en route from deeper magma chambers to the surface. An exploration approach aimed at understanding the fluid dynamics of such systems seems warranted. Although the Bushveld intrusion has been studied for decades and its deposits are taken as type examples of magmatic mineralisation, the origin of its PGE deposits remains unclear. Opinion is divided on the relative importance of sulfide segregation from magma filling a large chamber at the time of emplacement, and the scavanging of PGE from fluids circulating through cumulates at a late magmatic stage. Answers to these questions may come from studies designed to gain a better understanding of the mechanisms through which the magma chamber filled and solidified.
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  • 17
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
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    Mineralium deposita 32 (1997), S. 335-348 
    ISSN: 1432-1866
    Quelle: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Thema: Geologie und Paläontologie
    Notizen: Abstract  As depth of mining increases, so the production costs of the aurifereous Witwatersrand deposits are continuously increasing, with some mines already mining at depths exceeding 3500 m. Health and safety aspects are, simultaneously, gaining in importance. Therefore, in order to mine deep orebodies in existing mines, as well as to develop new mining ventures safely and efficiently, novel approaches, including mining strategies, layouts and support systems have to be adopted. Geological features largely control the deformation mechanisms associated with Witwatersrand orebodies. These features are grouped into two major categories: primary and secondary features. Both impact on the rockmass behaviour associated with the excavations, and contribute to the definition of geotechnical areas. Primary geological features are defined by the various rock types, orebody geometry, and the frequency and mineralogical characteristics of sedimentary structures (e.g. various kinds of bedding planes and lithological boundaries). The primary features also control rock engineering properties, closure rates, attitude and frequency of mining-induced stress fracturing, and planes may be reactivated during seismic events. Secondary geological features are faults, dykes and veins/joints, and associated metamorphism. These cause stability problems and are often associated with seismic events. Compositional and textural characteristics of these features, and their controls on the rockmass behaviour, are ill-defined. Primary and secondary geological characteristics also play an important role in identifying the appropriate mining strategy, layout and support. Geological features can be predicted into deep unmined areas, and therefore contribute to the safest and most efficient extraction of the orebody. Witwatersrand orebodies are mined in complex geological environments, with the rockmass behaviour differing from one orebody to the other. This is approached by employing a new methodology that attempts to quantify the problems encountered when mining the major Witwatersrand orebodies.
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  • 18
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    Digitale Medien
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    Mineralium deposita 32 (1997), S. 371-381 
    ISSN: 1432-1866
    Quelle: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Thema: Geologie und Paläontologie
    Notizen: Abstract During the last decade, exploration and mining of modern-Tertiary heavy mineral beach and raised beach sands along the west coast of South Africa has developed into a major industry. High resolution radiometric techniques have demonstrated their use as a quantitative indicator of total heavy mineral concentration (THM) and also have the ability to discriminate between sediments derived from different provenance terrains. Results indicate that it is possible to calculate the total heavy mineral concentration from high resolution radiometric measurements, but the ability to quantify the concentration of individual mineral fractions, such as ilmenite, requires further refinement of the method. Radiometric characteristics of the light mineral fraction made it possible to distinguish between sediments from mixed marine-aeolian palaeoplacers and active present beach placers. The effects of in situ alteration of the ilmenite fraction in the palaeoplacers were also reflected by subtle contrasts in the radiometric character of the deposits. Furthermore, the uniform radiometric character of the sample population indicates a common provenance for the heavy mineral suite and supports previous results which indicate the metamorphites of the mid-Proterozoic Namaqua Province as the primary source terrain. The high resolution radiometric techniques discussed offer a broad spectrum of applications in sedimentology and have the potential to aid heavy mineral exploration. With further refinement it can possibly be used quantitatively in grade control during mining and beneficiation of heavy mineral deposits.
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  • 19
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    Mineralium deposita 32 (1997), S. 362-370 
    ISSN: 1432-1866
    Quelle: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Thema: Geologie und Paläontologie
    Notizen: Abstract Exploitation of low-grade iron ore would be quite unique in a South African context as South Africa is well endowed with high-grade iron ore resources. Low-grade iron ore, defined as containing between 20 and 47% iron, is thought to be the primary iron-bearing lithology from which most high-grade ore deposits formed, through different processes of enrichment. The low-grade iron ores in the Northern Province represent meta-banded iron formations (BIFs), with an average iron content of about 36%. The main iron-bearing mineral is magnetite. The Northern Province ores have to be milled to sizes smaller than 150 μm in order to liberate the iron minerals from the host rock, and beneficiation is accomplished through a series of magnetic separation processes. Irrespective of the in situ quality of the ore, final concentrates of exceptionally good quality with more than 69% iron and very low contaminant levels can be produced. This, combined with mass yields of between 40 and 50% and iron recoveries greater than 80%, are excellent for this type of iron ore deposit. The beneficiation products are suitable for use in iron- and steel-making processes.
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  • 20
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    Digitale Medien
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    Mineralium deposita 32 (1997), S. 382-391 
    ISSN: 1432-1866
    Quelle: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Thema: Geologie und Paläontologie
    Notizen: Abstract The Griquatown Fault Zone (GFZ) is a major target for Pb-Zn exploration in South Africa. The sedimentary, structural and thermal history of the fault zone are evaluated. The fault zone experienced a synsedimentary period of activity between 2550 and 2500 Ma and a major post-Postmasburg Group (less than 2223 Ma) episode of mainly vertical movements. Possible source rocks for generation of metalliferous brines are abundant along the southwestern margin of the Kaapvaal craton and shales southwest of the GFZ are time correlative to a thick peritidal stromatolitic carbonate sequence in the northeast. Fluids driven by compaction and orogenic pressure migrated across the GFZ , via the carbonates, towards the east. Metamorphic overprint south of the GFZ, based on illite crystallinity, and fluid inclusions north of the fault zone are above the oil window. Metamorphic peaks south of the fault zone are at 1750 Ma and 1213 Ma and the intensity of metamorphic overprint decreases from west to east. Because of high temperatures of metamorphic and orogenic overprint and possible remobilisation of fluids, Mississippi-Valley-Type (MVT) ore deposits are unlikely to be found within the Griquatown Fault Zone, but are expected, rather, to the northeast of it. Higher temperature, remobilised vein-related deposits could, however, occur in the GFZ itself.
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  • 21
    ISSN: 1432-1866
    Quelle: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Thema: Geologie und Paläontologie
    Notizen: Abstract Second- and third-order fault-bounded Precambrian basins frequently host deposits of the sedimentary massive sulphide group. Three-dimensional geometric modelling of the thickness of preserved basin-fill successions of the Transvaal Supergroup, using DATAMINE software, and residual gravity modelling of the contemporary basement floor, help delineate areas of exploration potential in this unit. Two main depositional axes are tentatively identified for the basal volcano-sedimentary protobasinal Transvaal successions. A sheet-like geometry was indicated for the succeeding Black Reef sandstones and Chuniespoort Group chemical sedimentary rocks. The uppermost Pretoria Group thickness model delineates eastern and western second-order basins separated by a central submerged palaeohigh. A similar isopach pattern is noted for the thick shales of the Silverton Formation in this group, with, in addition, a well-defined third-order basin in the northwest of the western second-order basin. The residual gravity model indicates two linear palaeovalleys adjacent to this western basin, one coincident with one of the axes inferred for the protobasinal rocks. The fault-bounded second- and third-order basins and depositional axes postulated here are consistent with known geological data and suggested sedimentation models. Cumulative distortions implicit in the DATAMINE computer modelling technique are reduced when the method is applied on the basin-wide scale, enabling identification of regional exploration target areas rather than immediate prospecting targets.
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  • 22
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    Springer
    Mineralium deposita 32 (1997), S. 425-425 
    ISSN: 1432-1866
    Quelle: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Thema: Geologie und Paläontologie
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  • 23
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    Springer
    Mineralium deposita 32 (1997), S. 419-422 
    ISSN: 1432-1866
    Quelle: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Thema: Geologie und Paläontologie
    Notizen: Abstract Sediment-hosted uranium ores at Henkries in northwest South Africa occur in fine-grained sands, carbonaceous muds and diatomaceous earth within late Pleistocene lake deposits. The lakes are linked by short fluvial channel reaches and these aqueous beds are encompassed in predominant aeolian dune deposits. The late Pleistocene fluvial-lacustrine-aeolian succession is succeeded by a Holocene dune cover. Textural characterisation of lacustrine, fluvial and aeolian sands was based on volume percentages observed in sediment settling tubes. Vortex action during Holocene dune migration contaminated these aeolian cover sands with small amounts of substrate material, whose presence could be detected in settling tube patterns of surface aeolian sediment samples. It was thus possible to map buried lacustrine ore bodies, which were shown, by a successful drilling programme, to be displaced downwind.
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  • 24
    ISSN: 1432-1866
    Quelle: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Thema: Geologie und Paläontologie
    Notizen: Abstract An undulating sheet-like granodiorite body is intrusive into sedimentary rocks and dolerite of the Karoo Supergroup north of Cradock. The top of this sheet, where in contact with dolerite, is characterised by the presence of graphite containing nodules of sedimentary origin, and by sulphide-arsenide mineralization. REE and other geochemical evidence indicate that the granodiorite and the ore-bearing horizon are genetically related, but the latter is more altered by hydrothermal fluids. Similarities in REE distribution patterns also imply very little assimilation of sedimentary material. The granodiorite displays plume-like features signifying that the material was plastic or semi-molten when segregation of the plume-like features took place. The Ni-mineralisation in the ore-bearing horizon is not linked to the MgO or Fe2O3 of the granodiorite or of the ore-bearing zone, and is regarded as a separate event of hydrothermal origin.
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  • 25
    ISSN: 1432-1866
    Quelle: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Thema: Geologie und Paläontologie
    Notizen: Abstract The 1900–1700 Ma Waterberg Group in the main Waterberg fault-bounded basin consists of dominantly coarse siliciclastic red beds with minor volcanic rocks. The sedimentary rocks were deposited mainly by alluvial fans, fluvial braidplains and transgressive shallow marine environments, with lesser lacustrine and aeolian settings. Uplifted, largely granitic source areas were located along the Thabazimbi-Murchison lineament (TML) fault system in the south, and along the Palala shear zone in the northeast. Palaeoplacer titanomagnetite-ilmenite-zircon heavy mineral deposits, best developed in the Cleremont Formation in the centre of the basin, reflect initial fluvial reworking and subsequent littoral marine concentration. Coarse alluvial cassiterite placer deposits are found in the Gatkop area in the southwest of the basin, and appear to have been derived from stanniferous Bushveld Complex lithologies south of the TML. Hydrothermal zinc and U-Cu mineralisation in the Alma lithologies in the same area appears to be related to the TML fault system. Small manganese deposits and anomalous tungsten values occur in the south of the basin, where they are again closely spatially associated with the TML. Copper-barium mineralisation is found associated with dolerite dykes, and in stratigraphically controlled, inferred syngenetic settings. The most interesting of these apparently syngenetic occurrences is found within green coloured reduced mudrocks and inferred volcanic rocks, at an unconformity developed within the overall red bed sequence of the Waterberg Group, adjacent to the TML in the southwest of the basin. The most important potential mineralisation in the main Waterberg basin thus encompasses shoreline placer Ti and the possibility of substantial sediment-hosted copper deposits.
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  • 26
    ISSN: 1432-1866
    Quelle: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Thema: Geologie und Paläontologie
    Notizen: Abstract Ore deposits in the fold belts of the northern Tien Shan have been formed in two stages and occur in two types of tectonic settings. The first type is represented by Early Ordovician island arcs hosting the Karakol ore district. These east–west trending island arcs are interpreted to have evolved above the south dipping subduction of oceanic crust of the Central Asian paleo-ocean. The second type of tectonic setting hosting the Octorkoy Ore District, has evolved on a Devonian-Carboniferous active continental margin of the Central Asian paleo-ocean above north dipping subduction of the oceanic crust. The second type is superposed on the first tectonic setting. The Oktorkoy ore district is characterized by thrusting and similar circular structures as in the first stage and its polygenic mineralization is associated with multiphase granitoid complexes. Zonality of porphyry copper deposits of the Kyrghyz Range is associated with the following hydrothermal alteration sequence: potassium alteration - phyllization (beresitization) - prophyllitization (epidote-chlorite-albite) - tourmalinization - argillization - prophyllitization (epidote-actinolite-albite).
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  • 27
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    Springer
    Mineralium deposita 32 (1997), S. 426-433 
    ISSN: 1432-1866
    Quelle: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Thema: Geologie und Paläontologie
    Notizen: Abstract The Tethyan Eurasian metallogenic belt (TEMB) was formed during Mesozoic and post-Mesozoic times in the area of the former Tethyan ocean on the southern margin of Eurasia, with the Afro-Arabian and Indian plates to the south. It extends from western Mediterranean via the Alps and southeastern Europe through the Lesser Caucasus, the Hindu Kush, and the Tibet Plateau to Burma and SW Indonesia, linking with the West Pacific metallogenic belt. The Carpatho-Balkan region is one of the sectors of the TEMB, characterized by some specific features. The emplacement of ore deposits is related to a definite time interval, and to specific tectonic settings such as: 1. Late Permian-Triassic intracontinental rifting along the northern margin of Gondwanaland and/or fragments already separated. This setting involves volcanogenic and volcano-sedimentary deposits (iron, lead/zinc, manganese, antimony, mercury, barite), skarn deposits associated with volcano-plutonic complexes of bimodal magmatism, and low temperature carbonate-hosted lead/zinc deposits. 2. Jurassic intraoceanic rifting – ophiolite complexes: This setting hosts major magmatic (particularly podiform chrome deposits) and volcano-sedimentary deposits, mainly of the Cyprus type. 3. Subduction-related setting involves porphyry copper deposits, lesser skarn deposits (iron, locally Pb-Zn), massive sulphide Cu (e.g. Bor) accompanied locally by Pb-Zn of replacement type, epithermal gold deposits, associated with calc-alkaline igneous complexes of the Early Tertiary-Late Cretaceous, and the Neogene gold/silver and base metals deposits. 4. Post-collision continent-continent setting includes deposits of Pb-Zn, Sb, As, Au-Cu associated with volcano-plutonic complexes of calc-alkaline affinity. Several major Alpine metallogenic units are developed in the Carpatho-Balkanides and adjacent area, each characterized by specific development, mineral associations, and types of ore deposits.
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  • 28
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    Springer
    Mineralium deposita 32 (1997), S. 446-451 
    ISSN: 1432-1866
    Quelle: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Thema: Geologie und Paläontologie
    Notizen: Abstract Calcic skarn deposits related to Upper Cretaceous – Paleocene banatitic intrusions are widely developed in the Banat Mountains (southwestern Romanian Carpathians). There is a spatial distribution of banatitic igneous rocks and associated ore deposits in parallel zones, due to subduction beneath the southwest Carpathians. As a result three distinct petro-metallogenetic units developed, i.e. marginal unit: Moldova Nouă– Sasca; median unit: Ciclova – Oravita; and the inner unit: Dognecea – Ocna de Fier. The magmatism changed inland from monzonite and diorite → granodiorite occurrences to granodiorite → granite plutons. The related mineralization shifted simultaneously from Cu (Mo) to Cu-Mo (W) and eventually Fe(Cu)/Pb-Zn. The distribution of both magmatism and related ore deposits in parallel petro-metallogenetic zones is considered similar to that in the Andes. In particular, calcic skarns and related ore deposits that occur in these units show a transversal zonal variation represented by compositional features of pyroxene and granat, sequence of mineralization and metallogenetic environment. Such zonal characteristics represent an additional but nonetheless significant indicator for an Andean-type subduction-related setting.
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  • 29
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    Springer
    Mineralium deposita 32 (1997), S. 441-445 
    ISSN: 1432-1866
    Quelle: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Thema: Geologie und Paläontologie
    Notizen: Abstract Paleomagnetic data available from the Carpatho-Pannonian region are unevenly distributed. At some places, observations are sporadic, at others the concentration is high. In the latter case it is possible to decide whether the movements indicated are related to plate (microplate) displacements, or are of local significance. The paleomagnetically best-known parts of the Carpatho-Pannonian region belong to the Transdanubian Central Range, to the Cserhát-Mátra-Bükk area and to the Mecsek-Villány zone. Comparison among paleomagnetic data sets, characterizing each of them, reveals fundamental differences, i.e. points to their independent displacements during the Mesozoic and Cenozoic. Most of the isolated observations can be tied to one of the above mentioned paleomagnetic units via coeval, mostly late Cretaceous-Cenozoic data. Thus, further subdivision of the Carpatho-Pannonian area, at least in the Cenozoic, does not seem required by available paleomagnetic observations.
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  • 30
    ISSN: 1432-1866
    Quelle: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Thema: Geologie und Paläontologie
    Notizen: Abstract In the southwestern Carpathians of SW Romania and E Serbia calc-alkaline Upper Cretaceous-Paleogene subduction related magmatic rocks occur in two main zones. The Ridanj-Krepoljin belt (E Serbia) represents the southern part of the western zone. In this belt Early Maastrichtian dacites and subordinate andesites occur, but there are indications of an unexposed granodioritic (?) magmatism about 60 Ma old. Pb-Zn-Ag and only subordinate Cu mineralization is associated with this igneous activity. The Timok magmatic complex (E Serbia) composed of Upper Cretaceous (-Paleocene?) andesites and analogue intrusives represents the eastern zone south of the Danube. Associated with this magmatism are Cu (+Au) and very subordinate Zn (±Pb) mineralization. To the north (SW Romania) in both zones mainly intrusive bodies (diorites, quartz diorites, granodiorites, monzonites) of Campanian-Paleocene age are exposed. Porphyry copper (+Mo) and in north Pb-Zn (±Cu) mineralization are related to those intrusives. The petrological and geochemical features of all these calc-alkaline rocks are very similar. It appears, however, that the associated polymetallic and the copper mineralization are both spatially and vertically separated.
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  • 31
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
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    Mineralium deposita 32 (1997), S. 459-474 
    ISSN: 1432-1866
    Quelle: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Thema: Geologie und Paläontologie
    Notizen: Abstract The Central Iberian Zone of Spain and Portugal contains numerous gold deposits of varying size, age and host lithology. Previous work concentrated on single deposits leading to a need to apply a range of techniques to the region as a whole, to form a model for metallogenesis throughout the region. With this aim, a number of occurrences of gold mineralisation in the south-western Central Iberian Zone were studied. The Central Iberian Zone consists essentially of greenschist facies metasedimentary units intruded by Hercynian granitoids. Hercynian deformation occurred in three main stages, the earliest (D1) being the most intense. Quartz veining is common throughout the region, and a vein chronology was established relative to these deformation events. V1 veins are pre-Hercynian, and may predate the Precambrian Sardic deformation. V2 veins are syndeformational (D1), and associated with peak greenschist metamorphism. V3 veins are late-kinematic, syn- to post-D2. V4 veins are syn- to post-D3, occurring in the final stages of the Hercynian, and often associated with or post-dating granites. Reactivation of vein sets by later fluids was common. Fluid chemistry studies of samples of known chronology indicate three main sources of fluid. The dominant fluid throughout the region from V2 to V4 is a dilute aqueo-carbonic fluid of varying composition. The combination of fluid inclusion analyses and geochemical studies of wallrock alteration indicates that the fluid was the result of devolatilisation and dehydration during prograde metamorphism at varying depths. The resulting aqueo-carbonic fluids flowed upwards, mixing with each other and with meteoric waters. Contact metamorphism associated with granite intrusions during the D3 deformation released further aqueo-carbonic fluids, which in some cases unmixed to form separate carbonic and aqueous inclusions. Circulation of meteoric waters was important during later stages (D3). Prolonged low temperature fluid-rock interaction produced highly saline aqueous fluids which post-date all major quartz veining. No single set of characteristics exists for gold mineralisation in the Central Iberian Zone. Deposits cover a wide spectrum, but three main types have been identified: (1) early (D1/V2) syn-peak metamorphic gold-quartz veins, associated with an aqueo-carbonic fluid with high N2 and CH4; (2) late-kinematic (D2/V3) veins, often associated with late brittle faults. Again, the fluid present at the time of formation was aqueo-carbonic, but with lower N2 and CH4. (3) Late (V4) low temperature veins, formed by a mainly meteoric fluid, which was also responsible for remobilisation and concentration of gold in earlier deposits. The gold mineralisation in the Central Iberian Zone supports the continuum model for lode gold deposits. Gold was leached from metasediments during prograde metamorphism, transported to shallower crustal levels, and deposited wherever suitable traps occurred. Channelling of fluid from deeper levels resulted in the localisation of deposits close to major shear zones. Depositional sites were usually dilational zones in faults, and more rarely folds, but locally lithological controls were important. H2O-CO2 unmixing was common, but was not necessarily related to gold deposition.
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  • 32
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    Springer
    Mineralium deposita 32 (1997), S. 475-490 
    ISSN: 1432-1866
    Quelle: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Thema: Geologie und Paläontologie
    Notizen: Abstract Uneconomic tungsten mineralization associated with the Mariktikan granite pluton of the Transbaikalian igneous province, eastern Siberia, is confined to a marginal part of the pluton referred to as the Andreyevsky body. This is composed of rocks similar to those of the main pluton, but is likely to be an autonomous, although kindred, body. On the basis of cross-cutting relationships between rock varieties, and their textural features, the crystallization history is subdivided into three stages of unequal duration. Melt and fluid inclusions related to each of them have been studied using microthermometric and micro-analytical procedures, including a technique for atomic emission spectroscopy of individual fluid inclusions opened by a laser microprobe. During the main crystallization stage (1045–1012 °C) more than 70% of the parental magma is believed to have crystallized (at the level studied), resulting in the formation of a crystalline framework rigid enough for the appearance of fractures within which some portion of the intercrystalline melt accumulated, giving rise to thin aplite veins. Almost complete crystallization of intercrystalline and fracture-hosted melt occurred during the late stage (1012–990 °C), whereas during the final stage only small bunches of schlieric, sometimes miarolitic pegmatite were formed from a few pockets of residual melt (990–917 °C). In spite of the low water content of the melt (about 1 wt.%), fluid separation took place from the onset of crystallization. During the main crystallization stage, the exsolved fluid divided into two immiscible phases, CO2-rich gas and salt-rich liquid (brine). However, it was homogeneous thereafter. Major ore components of the brine (Mn, Fe, W) displayed different behaviour as crystallization progressed. W concentration was below 0.1 wt.% at the main stage, attained 1 wt.% during the late stage and increased to 1.8 wt.% at the final stage. Comparison of these data with calculations carried out using estimated parameters for the parental magma enables us to infer that obtained concentration values are reasonable for the special case studied here. However, they are unlikely to be attainable if the magma is H2O enriched and lacks an anomalously high W content. In the Andreyevsky body of the Mariktikan pluton, the following features of the parental magma made possible the generation of W-rich solutions: (1) high liquidus temperature (1045 °C) and elevated Cl content (c.0.15 wt.%) that resulted in enlargement of the fluid/melt distribution coefficient (c.10), (2) low water content (c.1%) and elevated W content (c.0.001 wt.%) that provided a relatively high W/H2O ratio within the system. At the same time, because of the low water content of the magma, the total mass of W-bearing solutions has proved to be insufficient for the production of large-scale mineralization (a reduced W content of the great bulk of the exsolved brine may have had an unfavourable effect as well).
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  • 33
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
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    Mineralium deposita 32 (1997), S. 505-519 
    ISSN: 1432-1866
    Quelle: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Thema: Geologie und Paläontologie
    Notizen: Abstract The Sanbaqi uranium deposit in Hunan Province, south China, is the largest of a group of paleokarst-hosted uranium deposits in Lower Carboniferous limestone. Mineralization is localized in cavities and fault-breccias formed by dissolution of carbonates. Four episodes of karst formation are recognized: late Triassic-early Jurassic, late Jurassic-early Cretaceous, Cretaceous-Tertiary and Recent. Field relations indicate that the main uranium mineralization is related to the second karst episode. This is supported by isotopic ages of two pitchblende samples at 129 Ma and 134 Ma, as indicated by their nearly concordant data points on concordia plot. These ages are in the time range of the early Yanshanian tectonic movements that affected southern China, and the faulting related to the movements likely triggered the mineralization process at the Sanbaqi deposit. Associated minerals include pyrite, millerite, ullmannite, niccolite, molybdenite, chalcopyrite, sphalerite, galena, calcite and dolomite. Fluid inclusion studies on calcite reveal that temperature of ore deposition was from 181° to 150 °C. The δ18O and δD values of the ore fluids range from 1.5 to 7.9 per mil and from −30.4 and −54.8 per mil, respectively. The mineralogical, fluid inclusion and isotopic data indicate that the minerlization took place in episodic pulses of hydrothermal fluids that were introduced along a set of ring faults. Mobilization and redeposition of earlier formed ore minerals in an open system added to the complexity of the paragenetic sequence. Younger episodes of mineralization occurred during the later karst events as suggested by the geological and additional pitchblende U-Pb isotopic data, during the Cretaceous-Tertiary late Yanshanian tectonic movements and recently. Finally, a comparison of the Sanbaqi uranium deposit with the uranium deposits hosted by solution collapse breccia pipes of the Colorado Plateau, USA, shows that they have many similarities.
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  • 34
    ISSN: 1432-1866
    Quelle: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Thema: Geologie und Paläontologie
    Notizen: Abstract The Lega Dembi deposit is the largest gold producer in Ethiopia. It is situated in late-Precambrian metamorphosed sediments of the N-S trending, volcano-sedimentary Megado belt, which forms part of the late-Proterozoic Adola granite-greenstone terrane in southern Ethiopia. The lode-gold mineralization occurs in a N-S trending, steep westerly dipping quartz-vein system that follows the structural contact between underlying feldspathic gneisses and the volcanosedimentary sequence of the Megado belt. This contact also marks the northernmost extension of the regional-scale, sinistral strike-slip Lega Dembi-Aflata shear zone. Mineralization and intense quartz-veining is best developed in graphite-rich sediments within an area not more than 80 m away from this tectonic contact. Hydrothermal wall-rock alteration includes actinolite/tremolite-biotite-calcite-sericite and chlorite-calcite-epidote assemblages. Gold occurs preferentially in the sericite alteration zone, where it is closely associated and intergrown with galena. The variable deformation of the gold-quartz veins suggests a syn-kinematic timing for the gold mineralization during transcurrent shearing in a dilational segment of the shear zone. In addition to the structural control, lithological control on gold deposition is indicated by the almost exclusive occurrence of the gold mineralization in graphite-rich metasediments. This close relationship suggests that gold precipitation was the result of chemical reduction of regional ore-bearing fluids. Temperature conditions of mineralization are constrained by the actinolite-biotite alteration assemblage and by arsenopyrite chemistry, which indicate that ore deposition occurred at or close to peak metamorphic conditions at upper-greenschist to lower-amphibolite metamorphic grades. Rb-Sr dating of sericite indicates an age of about 545 Ma. for hydrothermal alteration and, thus, for gold mineralization. The style of gold mineralization, structural pattern and lithological assemblages at Lega Dembi are very similar to lode-gold deposits most commonly reported from Archaean granite-greenstone terranes. These similarities may open new perspectives for the exploration of lode-gold deposits, which has previously primarily focused on Archaean greenstone belts rather than Proterozoic or even Phanerozoic meta-volcanosedimentary belts.
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  • 35
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    Springer
    Mineralium deposita 32 (1997), S. 523-530 
    ISSN: 1432-1866
    Quelle: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Thema: Geologie und Paläontologie
    Notizen: Abstract Analyses of gold particles from the Ventersdorp Contact Reef in the Klerksdorp and Carletonville goldfields of the Late Archaean Witwatersrand Basin reveal a wide range in Au, Ag and Hg concentrations of 80.9 to 92.9, 6.0 to 17.6, and 0.6 to 5.8 wt.%, respectively. However, individual gold particles are generally homogeneous. This observation is predicted by modelling of Ag and Hg diffusion through gold at the peak metamorphic temperature of about 300 °C. The only exception is gold in hydrothermal quartz veins, the formation of which can be ascribed to the mobilisation of originally detrital gold particles during a chloritisation event that was triggered by tectonically expelled fluids, as a consequence of the 2023 Ma Vredefort meteorite impact event. Inter-particle homogenisation on a hand-sample scale was generally not achieved. The mean gold composition for the same reef in different mines (kilometre scale) can vary drastically. These results confirm the model of a metamorphosed and hydrothermally altered placer deposit. Furthermore they indicate that, in spite of a significant post-depositional modification of the composition of individual gold particles, the mean gold composition at a given reef locality may be used to distinguish different source areas of the originally detrital particles.
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  • 36
    ISSN: 1432-1866
    Quelle: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Thema: Geologie und Paläontologie
    Notizen: Abstract The El Faldeo is the southernmost Andean mineral district and consists of Paleozoic polymetamorphic basement unconformably overlain by a 200 m thick homoclinal sequence of sedimentary and felsic volcanic beds of the Ibáñez formation. In addition, two epizonal intrusive units and related subvolcanic porphyries, sills and dikes which intrude both the metamorphic basement and the Ibáñez formation, are recognized: the Quebrada Colorada Granodiorite (QCG) and the Cerro Esmeralda Tonalite (CET). The polymetallic mineralization was formed in four stages and includes pyrite, arsenopyrite, gold, silver, sphalerite, galena and chalcopyrite hosted in felsic tuffs of the Ibáñez formation, hydrothermal breccias and epizonal intrusions. Field observations and geochronological data (U-Pb, Ar-Ar and fission track) on CET rocks suggest: (1) the development of subsiding pull-apart basins and coeval formation of spaces for magmatic emplacement and mineralization in an extensional tectonic regime in mid-Jurassic time; (2) a tectonic exhumation of the rocks of the district, probably triggered by the Chile ridge–trench interactions that started in Late Miocene time. Sr-Nd isotopic data from CET samples, and the Pb isotope characteristics of galenas from the second and third mineralization stages, are indicative of crustal contribution to the origin of the magmas and galena mineralization. Rocks of the Paleozoic metamorphic basement are prime candidates for the crustal source components of the analyzed galenas.
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  • 37
    ISSN: 1432-1866
    Quelle: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Thema: Geologie und Paläontologie
    Notizen: Abstract The Punta del Cobre belt is located 15 km south of Copiapó, northern Chile. It comprises several Cu(-Fe)-Au deposits in the Punta del Cobre and Ladrillos districts, east of the Copiapó river, and the Ojancos Nuevo district, with the new Candelaria mine, and Las Pintadas district, west of the river. The mineralization in the Punta del Cobre belt is characterized by a simple hypogene mineral assemblage of chalcopyrite, pyrite, magnetite, and hematite. Average ore grades are 1.1 to 2% Cu, 0.2 to 0.6 g/t Au, and 2 to 8 g/t Ag. Massive magnetite occurs as veins and irregularly shaped bodies. The ore is spatially associated with alkali metasomatism and in particular with potassic alteration. The Cu(-Fe)-Au deposits are hosted mainly in volcanic rocks of the Punta del Cobre Formation (pre-upper Valanginian) that underlie Neocomian limestones of the Chañarcillo Group. This region experienced backarc basin formation in the Neocomian, uplift and granitoid intrusions in the middle Cretaceous, and eastward migration of the magmatic front of about 30 km between middle Cretaceous and Paleocene. To determine the timing of ore deposition and to reconstruct parts of the thermal history of the Punta del Cobre district, in the eastern part of the belt, we have obtained 40Ar/39Ar incremental-heating and Rb-Sr analyses of mineral and whole-rock samples. An 40Ar/39Ar incremental-heating experiment on hydrothermal biotite, formed synchronous with the Cu(-Fe)-Au mineralization, yielded an inverse isochron age of 114.9 ± 1.0 Ma (all errors reported at ±2σ), consistent with a Rb-Sr isochron of 116.8 ± 2.7 Ma calculated from 7 whole-rock samples. These data are interpreted to represent the age of potassic alteration that accompanies mineralization. Ore formation temperatures of 400 °C to 500 °C were previously estimated based on paragenetic relationships. Shearing at the Candelaria deposit occurred after ore deposition and before the main stage of batholith emplacement. Published K-Ar ages for the middle Cretaceous batholith near the Punta del Cobre belt range from 119 to 97 Ma. Our data suggest that the mineralization is related to the earlier stages of batholith emplacement. The biotite age spectrum indicates that the Punta del Cobre district was not affected by temperatures above ∼300 °C–350 °C, the closure temperature for argon in biotite, during the contact metamorphic overprint produced by later emplaced batholithic intrusions. Whole-rock 40Ar/39Ar ages are considerably younger; incremental-heating experiments yielded an inverse isochron age of 90.7 ± 1.2 Ma and weighted mean plateau ages of 89.8 ± 0.6 Ma and 89.5 ± 0.6 Ma. These samples are dominantly K-feldspar, for which we assume an argon closure temperature of ∼150 °C, thus they give the age of cooling below ∼150 °C–200 °C.
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  • 38
    ISSN: 1432-1866
    Quelle: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Thema: Geologie und Paläontologie
    Notizen: Abstract The abandoned As–Au–Ag mining district Rotgülden is located within the eastern Tauern window of the Eastern Alps and was reinvestigated in order to evaluate ore deposition during Alpine/late orogenic tectonic processes. Four major ore types have been recognized: (1) quartz-sulfide veins within Variscan basement rocks; (2) deformed metamorphic massive ores within fold hinge zones (“saddle reefs”) of Permian to Mesozoic cover sequences; (3) ores in tension gashes of the cover sequence; and (4) irregular replacement ore bodies in marbles of the cover sequence. Ore deposition was intimately related to late orogenic exhumation by stretching of footwall sequences within the Tauern metamorphic core complex during late Oligocene and Neogene. Hydrothermal systems developed and metals from apparently distinct sources were deposited under decreasing temperature conditions. Lead is distinctly radiogenic and resembles the lead in Au-quartz veins of the Mesozoic cover sequence of the Hohe Tauern.
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  • 39
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    Springer
    Mineralium deposita 32 (1997), S. 569-580 
    ISSN: 1432-1866
    Quelle: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Thema: Geologie und Paläontologie
    Notizen: Abstract Scheelite-mineralized microtonalite sheets occur on the SE margin of the end-Caledonian Leinster Granite in SE Ireland. Scheelite, polymetallic sulphides and minor cassiterite occur in veins in the microtonalites, disseminated throughout the greisened microtonalite sheets and in the adjacent wallrocks. Two major mineralized vein types occur in the microtonalite sheets: (1) Scheelite ± arsenopyrite ± pyrrhotite occur in quartz-fluorite veins, generally without a muscovite selvage; (2) Sphalerite ± chalcopyrite ± pyrite ± galena ± cassiterite ± stannite occur in quartz + fluorite veins with a coarse muscovite selvage and are often intergrown with the muscovite. Quartz-hosted fluid inclusions were examined from representative samples of both vein types using petrographic, microthermometric and laser Raman spectroscopic techniques. Three distinct types of fluid inclusions have been recognized. Primary, vapour rich Type 1 inclusions in quartz from the scheelite-mineralized veins are of H2O-CO2-CH4-N2 ± H2S ± NaCl composition and formed between 360–530 °C. Primary and secondary, liquid-rich Type 2 fluid inclusions in the base metal sulphide-mineralized veins are of H2O-CH4-N2 ± H2S-NaCl composition and formed between 340–480 °C. They also occur as pseudosecondary and secondary inclusions in scheelite-mineralized veins. Late dilute, low temperature H2O-NaCl + KCl fluid inclusions may be related to late-Caledonian convection of meteoric waters around the cooling Leinster Granite batholith.
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  • 40
    ISSN: 1432-1866
    Quelle: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Thema: Geologie und Paläontologie
    Notizen: Abstract Scheelite mineralization accompanied by muscovite and albite, and traces of Mo-stolzite and stolzite occurs in epigenetic quartz vein systems hosted by two-mica gneissic schists, and locally amphibolites, of the Paleozoic or older Vertiskos Formation, in the Metaggitsi area, central Chalkidiki, N Greece. Three types of primary fluid inclusions coexist in quartz and scheelite: type 1, the most abundant, consists of mixed H2O-CO2 inclusions with highly variable (20–90 vol.%) CO2 contents and salinities between 0.2 and 8.3 equivalent weight % NaCl. Densities range from 0.79 to 0.99 g/cc; type 1 inclusions contain also traces (〈2 mol%) of CH4. Type 2 inclusions are nearly 100 vol.% liquid CO2, with traces of CH4, and densities between 0.75 and 0.88 g/cc. Type 3 inclusions, the least abundant, contain an aqueous liquid of low salinity (0.5 to 8.5 equivalent weight% NaCl) with 10–30 vol.% H2O gas infrequently containing also small amounts of CO2 (〈2 mol%); densities range from 0.72 to 0.99 g/cc. The wide range of coexisting fluid inclusion compositions is interpreted as a result of fluid immiscibility during entrapment. Immiscibility is documented by the partitioning of CH4 and CO2, into gas-rich (CO2-rich) type 1 inclusions, and the conformity of end-member compositions trapped in type 1 inclusions to chemical equilibrium fractionation at the minimum measured homogenization temperatures, and calculated homogenization pressures. Minimum measured homogenization temperatures of aqueous and gas-rich type 1 inclusions of 220°–250 °C, either to the H2O, or to the CO2 phase, is considered the best estimate of temperature of formation of the veins, and temperature of scheelite deposition. Corresponding fluid pressures were between 1.2 and 2.6 kbar. Oxygen fugacities during mineralization varied from 10−35 to 10−31 bar and were slightly above the synthetic Ni-NiO buffer values. The fluid inclusion data combined with δ18O water values of 3 to 6 per mil (SMOW) and δ13C CO2− fluid of −1.2 to +4.3 per mil (PDB), together with geologic data, indicate generation of mineralizing fluids primarily by late- to post-metamorphic devolatilization reactions.
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  • 41
    ISSN: 1432-1866
    Quelle: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Thema: Geologie und Paläontologie
    Notizen: Abstract A La-Ce-Sr-Ca aluminous hydroxy phosphate of the goyazite-florencite-crandallite series was observed in the nuclear reactor zone 13 in the Oklo uranium deposit (Gabon). It has a trigonal elementary cell with a = 6.98 ± 0.03 Å and c = 16.35 ± 0.04 Å (space group P3m). It occurs in a U-rich sample depleted in 235U (235U/238U = 0.0047). Its chemical composition, measured by ion microprobe analyses, shows that it contains fission products (Zr, LREE) whereas the isotopic composition of Ba and Sr is natural. Ion microprobe imaging indicates that the nearby uraninite crystals are depleted in fissiogenic LREE. This study shows that the migration of some fission products, probably related to a dolerite dike intrusion, is limited by the formation of aluminous hydroxy phosphates.
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  • 42
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    Springer
    Mineralium deposita 32 (1997), S. 596-606 
    ISSN: 1432-1866
    Quelle: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Thema: Geologie und Paläontologie
    Notizen: Abstract The Tono sandstone-type uranium mine area, middle Honsyu, Japan is composed of Miocene lacustrine sedimentary rocks in the lower part (18–22 Ma) and marine facies in the upper part (15–16 Ma). Calcite and pyrite occur as dominant diagenetic alteration products in these Neogene sedimentary rocks. The characteristics of calcite and pyrite differ significantly between lacustrine and marine facies. Abundant pyrite, calcite, organic matter, and small amounts of marcasite or pyrrhotite occur in the lacustrine facies, whereas small amounts of calcite and framboidal pyrite, organic matter and no marcasite or pyrrhotite are found within the marine units. The δ13C values of calcite in the lacustrine deposits are low (−19 to −6‰ PDB) but those in marine formation are high (−11 to +3‰). This implies that the contribution of marine carbonate is larger in upper marine sedimentary rocks, and carbon in calcite in the lower lacustrine formation was derived both from oxidation of organic matter and from dissolved marine inorganic carbon. The δ34S values of framboidal pyrite in the upper marine formation are low (−14 to −8‰ CDT), indicating a small extent of bacterial seawater sulfate reduction, whereas those of euhedral-subhedral pyrite in the lower lignite-bearing arkose sandstone are high (+10 to +43‰), implying a large extent of closed-system bacterial seawater sulfate reduction. The δ34S and δ13C data which deviate from a negative correlation line toward higher δ13C values suggest methanogenic CO2 production. During diagenesis of the lacustrine unit, large amounts of euhedral-subhedral pyrite were formed, facilitated by extensive bacterial reduction of seawater sulfate with concomitant oxidation of organic matter, and by hydrolysis reactions of organic matter, producing CH4 and CO2. Uranium minerals (coffinite and uraninite) were also formed at this stage by the reduction of U6+ to U4+. The conditions of diagenetic alteration within the lacustrine deposits and uranium mineralization is characterized by low Eh in which nearly equal concentrations of CH4 and HCO3 − existed and reduced sulfur species (H2S, HS−) are predominant among aqueous sulfur species, whereas diagenetic alteration of the marine formations was characterized by a predominance of SO4 2− among dissolved sulfur species. Modern groundwater in the lacustrine formation has a low Eh value (−335 mV). Estimated and measured low Eh values of modern and ancient interstitial waters in lacustrine environments indicate that a reducing environment in which U4+ is stable has been maintained since precipitation of uranium minerals.
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  • 43
    ISSN: 1432-1866
    Quelle: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Thema: Geologie und Paläontologie
    Notizen: Abstract The Olmedo bauxite deposit occurs in the Nurra district of northwest Sardinia. It forms a stratiform horizon in Cretaceous limestone and marl. Uplift in mid-Cretaceous had exposed recently deposited limestone to karst weathering, and a layer of argillaceous debris accumulated on its surface and was partly converted to bauxite. Intermediate products were desiccated marl, bauxitic argillite and argillaceous bauxite. Subsidence followed, and the bauxite was preserved by the deposition of late Cretaceous limestone and other sediments. Uplift in Oligocene-Miocene time, with ensuing erosion, exposed the bauxite horizon to its present configuration. Concentrations of normative minerals illustrate chemical processes and the build-up of Al in the bauxite horizon. Plots of chemical data and correlation coefficients show that Al, Ti, Zr, Nb, Th, Cr and V were immobile during the bauxitization process. Mass changes point to large net removal of Si, Mg and K from the system, although some of this material and slightly mobile Al were reprecipitated in the underlying argillite and altered marl. Immobile element ratios trace the source of the bauxite to the underlying argillaceous limestone. Al in the bauxite was accumulated from the degradation of 25 to 50 m of the argillaceous limestone.
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  • 44
    ISSN: 1432-1866
    Quelle: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Thema: Geologie und Paläontologie
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
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  • 45
    ISSN: 1432-1866
    Quelle: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Thema: Geologie und Paläontologie
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
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  • 46
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    Springer
    Mineralium deposita 33 (1997), S. 31-44 
    ISSN: 1432-1866
    Quelle: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Thema: Geologie und Paläontologie
    Beschreibung / Inhaltsverzeichnis: Resumen (translated by E. Pascual) Se describen los rasgos estructurales mayores de la Faja Pirítica Ibérica, en cuanto a geometría, mecanismos de deformación, escala, cronología, cinemática y relaciones mutuas entre los diversos elementos arquitectónicos. El resultado de dicho análisis permite considerar la zona como un cinturón de pliegues y cabalgamientos de tipo “thin-skinned” vergentes al S, que se propagan hacia el S sobre un despegue basal mesocortical. Esta fue la respuesta en el bloque de muro de la sutura a la fase mayor de la colisión oblicua hercínica entre la placa sudportuguesa y la zona de Ossa Morena del autóctono ibérico. Este evento de tipo “thin-skinned” invierte una estructura extensional previa, adquirida durante la etapa inicial del proceso colisional e íntimamente ligada a la formación de los depósitos minerales que hacen de esta región una provincia metalogénica de importancia mundial.
    Notizen: Abstract The major structural features of the Iberian Pyrite Belt are described in terms of geometry, deformation mechanisms, scale, timing, kinematics and the mutual relationships among the various architectural elements. The result of such an analysis allows this zone to be considered as a S-verging, thin-skinned, fold and thrust belt propagating southwards over a mid-crustal basal detachment. This was the response in the footwall of the suture to the major phase of Hercynian oblique collision between the South Portuguese Plate and the Ossa-Morena Zone of the Iberian Autochthon. This thin-skinned event inverted a previous extensional structure acquired during the initial stages of the collisional process and intimately linked to the formation of the ore deposits that make this region a world-class metallogenic province.
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  • 47
    ISSN: 1432-1866
    Quelle: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Thema: Geologie und Paläontologie
    Beschreibung / Inhaltsverzeichnis: Resumen (translated by E. Pascual) Durante la década pasada, la Faja Pirítica Ibérica (FPI) ha sido un área de actividad minera e investigación cientifica renovadas, lo que ha conducido a la obtención de nuevos datos y conceptos geológicos y metalogénicos, que se exponen sucintamente en este Número Especial. La razón de este interés en la FPI, que forma parte del cinturón orogénico hercínico, es que sus rocas, cuyas edades abarcan desde el Devónico tardío al Carbonífero Medio, albergan una enorme cantidad de mineralizaciones de sulfuros masivos ligados a vulcanismo (1700 millones de toneladas de sulfuros, que totalizan 14,6 Mt de Cu, 13,0 Mt de Pb, 34,9 Mt de Zn, 46100 toneladas de Ag y 880 toneladas de Au). Las mineralizaciones y su entorno muestran signaturas que se pueden relacionar con la mineralogía y la zonación de las masas de sulfuros, con los isótopos de plomo de la mineralización, con las variaciones en los halos de alteración hidrotermal alrededor de las mineralizaciones, con los caracteres geoquímicos de las rocas volcánicas bimodales que albergan los sulfuros masivos, con la compleja evolución tectónica del conjunto durante la orogenia hercínica, con la existencia de paleofallas y estructuras sinsedimentarias que actuaron como canales y trampas de descarga para los fluidos metalíferos y los gossans que se desarrollaron sobre los sulfuros. Se han deducido criterios geológicos discriminantes para cada área de conocimiento, que pueden ser útiles para la exploración minera, complementando las técnicas más tradicionales de prospección. Aunque la cuestión del entorno geodinámico de la FPI todavía es materia de debate, cualquier interpretación tiene que tener ahora en cuenta algunas restricciones incontrovertibles: por ejemplo, los caracteres geoquímicos de una gran parte de las rocas básicas son comparables a los de basaltos derivados del manto y emplazados en entornos tectónicos extensionales, y las rocas ácidas asociadas se produjeron a partir de un protolito cortical básico, a presiones bajas o intermedias y asociadas a un abrupto gradiente térmico. Por consiguiente, la secuencia vulcanosedimentaria que contiene los sulfuros masivos difiere claramente de las series recientes relacionadas con entornos de arco. Consideramos aquí que el entorno tectónico fue extensional y epicontinental y que tuvo lugar durante la convergencia de placas hercínica, que culminó en deformación “thin-skinned” y acreción del terreno constituído por la Zona Sudportuguesa al bloque continental paleozoico ibérico.
    Notizen: Abstract The Iberian Pyrite Belt (IPB) has, over the past decade, been an area of renewed mining activity and scientific research that has resulted in a wealth of new data and new geological and metallogenic concepts that are succinctly presented in this Thematic Issue. The reason for this interest in the IPB, which forms part of the Hercynian orogenic belt, is that its Late Devonian to Middle Carboniferous rocks host a huge quantity of volcanic-hosted massive sulphide (VMS) mineralization (1700 Mt of sulphides, totalling 14.6 Mt Cu, 13.0 Mt Pb, 34.9 Mt Zn, 46100 t Ag and 880 t Au). The mineralization and its environment display a number of typical signatures that can be related to the mineralogy and zoning of the sulphide orebodies, to the lead isotopes of the mineralization, to the geochemical and mineralogical variations in the hydrothermal alteration halos surrounding the orebodies, to the geochemical characteristics of the bimodal volcanics hosting the VMS, to the complex structural evolution during the Hercynian orogeny, to the presence of palaeofaults and synsedimentary structures that acted as channels and discharge traps for the metalliferous fluids, and to the gossans developed over VMS. Discriminant geological criteria have been deduced for each domain which can be helpful in mineral exploration, complementing the more traditional prospecting techniques. Although the question of the IPB's geodynamic setting is still under debate, any interpretation must now take into account some incontrovertible constraints: for example, the geochemical characteristics of a large part of the basic lavas are comparable to those of mantle-derived basalts emplaced in extensional tectonic settings, and the associated acidic rocks were produced by melting of a basic crustal protolith at low- to medium-pressures and a steep geothermal gradient, thus, the sulphide-bearing volcano-sedimentary sequence differs strongly from recent arc-related series. It is considered here that the tectonic setting was extensional and epicontinental and that it developed during the Hercynian plate convergence, that culminated in thin-skinned deformation and accretion of the South Portuguese terrane to the Iberian Paleozoic continental block.
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  • 48
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    Springer
    Mineralium deposita 33 (1997), S. 45-58 
    ISSN: 1432-1866
    Quelle: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Thema: Geologie und Paläontologie
    Beschreibung / Inhaltsverzeichnis: Resumen (translated by E. Pascual) Se han realizado análisis de isótopos de plomo en 26 sulfuros polimetálicos masivos de la Faja Pirítica Ibérica, así como en los gossans que los cubren y en las rocas volcánicas asociadas. Todos los depósitos de sulfuros masivos (excepto el de Neves Corvo), y casi todas las rocas volcánicas muestran composiciones isotópicas muy similares, que se agrupan en torno a 18,183 para 206Pb/204Pb, 15,622 para 207Pb/204Pb y 38,191 para 208Pb/204Pb, lo que indica que la mayor parte del plomo de los yacimientos derivó del mismo entorno cortical que las rocas volcánicas asociadas. Las composiciones isotópicas son representativas de la corteza sudibérica media durante el Devónico y el inicio del Carbonífero (Dinantiense), y su uniformidad implica una homogeneización de los fluidos mineralizantes anterior al depósito de los sulfuros masivos a partir de los fluidos hidrotermales que circulaban por sistemas de fracturas regionales interconectados. La uniformidad isotópica es incompatible con un sistema de pequeñas células hidrotermales independientes del tipo de las de la dorsal del Pacífico oriental, y concuerda mucho mejor con un modelo de convección hidrotermal controlada por “magmatic floor heating”. Neves Corvo es el único depósito de sulfuros masivos sudibérico que tiene una composición isotópica heterogénea, en la que es de resaltar el carácter altamente radiogénico del mineral estannífero (206Pb/204Pb 〉 18,40 para la casiterita). Para explicar estas variaciones, se propone un modelo de mezcla de plomo con tres componentes: uno, derivado de la corteza continental de edad devónica a dinantiense; otro, a partir de una mineralización estannífera eohercínica, parcialmente removilizada durante el depósito de los sulfuros masivos pero independiente de ellos, y un tercero a partir de un componente cortical continental precámbrico. La yuxtaposición de tres fuentes distintas coloca a Neves Corvo en una situación paleogeográfica específica que explicaría también su mineralogía peculiar. El contexto geodinámico que mejor explica los resultados isotópicos obtenidos es el de un prisma de acreción. El hecho de que la signatura isotópica de los gossans sea casi idéntica a la de los depósitos de sulfuros infrayacentes implica que esta técnica puede ser una herramienta de exploración útil en la Faja Pirítica Ibérica.
    Notizen: Abstract Lead isotope analyses were performed on 26 polymetallic massive sulphide deposits of the Iberian Pyrite Belt, as well as on overlying gossans and associated volcanic rocks. All the massive sulphide deposits (except for Neves-Corvo), and nearly all the volcanic rocks show very similar isotopic compositions grouped around 18.183 (206Pb/204Pb), 15.622 (207Pb/204Pb) and 38.191 (208Pb/204Pb), indicating that most of the ore deposit lead was derived from the same continental crust environment as the associated volcanic rocks. The isotopic compositions are representative of the average south Iberian crust during the Devonian to Early Carboniferous (Dinantian), and their constancy implies a homogenization of the mineralizing fluids before the deposition of the massive sulphides from hydrothermal fluids circulating through interconnected regional fracture systems. This isotopic constancy is incompatible with multiple, small, independent hydrothermal cells of the East Pacific Rise type, and fits much better with a model of hydrothermal convections driven by “magmatic floor heating”. Neves-Corvo is the only south Iberian massive sulphide deposit to have a heterogeneous isotopic composition with, in particular, a highly radiogenic stanniferous ore (206Pb/204Pb of the cassiterite is 〉18.40). A model of lead mixing with three components is proposed to explain these variations: (1) one derived from the Devonian to Early Carboniferous (Dinantian) continental crust that generated all the other massive ores; (2) an Eohercynian stanniferous mineralization partly remobilized during the formation of the massive sulphides, but independent of them; and (3) a Precambrian continental crust component. The juxtaposition of three different sources places Neves-Corvo in a specific paleogeographic situation that could also explain its mineralogical specificity. The geodynamic context that best explains all the obtained isotopic results is one of an accretionary prism. The fact that lead isotope signatures of the gossans are almost identical to those of the underlying massive sulphides means that this technique could be a useful exploration tool for the Iberian Pyrite Belt.
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  • 49
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    Springer
    Mineralium deposita 33 (1997), S. 59-81 
    ISSN: 1432-1866
    Quelle: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Thema: Geologie und Paläontologie
    Beschreibung / Inhaltsverzeichnis: Resumen (translated by E. Pascual) Dado que los lentejones de chert son comunes dentro de la sucesión vulcanosedimentaria que contiene los depósitos de sulfuros masivos de la Faja Pirítica Ibérica (España y Portugal), se han examinado numerosos afloramientos de chert, tanto desde un punto de vista petrográfico como geoquímico, para verificar su posible utilidad en la exploración de sulfuros masivos. El chert se encuentra en dos niveles litoestratigráficos principales (superior e inferior) que también son interpretados como portadores de mineralizaciones. El chert se localiza en los dos casos en el techo de las secuencias volcánicas ácidas o en los sedimentos asociados. No hemos podido observar las relaciones entre sulfuros masivos y chert, pero se ha descrito que algunas de las mayores masas de la provincia (Lousal, La Zarza, Tharsis, Planes-San Antonio en Ríotinto, Neves) están localmente recubiertas por facies de chert. Se han reconocido cuatro tipos principales entre los cherts y facies asociadas: 1) chert hematítico rojo ± magnetita; 2) chert de radiolarios y/o con textura sedimentaria (conglomerático), con hematites y/o óxidos de manganeso; 3) chert pálido sulfurado; 4) facies con rodonita y/o carbonatos de Mn ± magnetita. En la parte española de la provincia el chert de radiolarios sólo aparece en el nivel superior, en tanto que la distribución de los otros tipos parece aleatoria. El origen hidrotermal del chert sudibérico se refleja en su alto contenido en Fe-Mn y en su escasa abundancia en Co-Ni-Cu. La presencia de pequeñas anomalías positivas de Ce indica un ambiente marino somero (plataforma o mar epicontinental), lo que concuerda con los datos vulcanológicos y sedimentológicos. El chert se emplazó bajo el fondo marino por precipitación química y/o alteración y reemplazamiento de la roca huésped, de la cual quedan trazas, como fantasmas de fenocristales y altos contenidos en Al, Ti y tierras raras. Las relaciones macro y microscópicas indican que primero se formaron las facies de óxidos (hematites ± magnetita), proporcionando una cubierta protectora aislante frente al ambiente marino y favoreciendo la evolución hacia sulfuros masivos. La facies de carbonatos y silicatos de Mn + cuarzo ± clorita + sulfuros parece ser aún más tardía. No ha sido posible discriminar un chert que se pueda considerar representativo como marcador lateral de sulfuros masivos. Además, tanto las observaciones de campo como los datos geoquímicos parecen indicar una relativa independencia de esta actividad hidrotermal silícea respecto de la actividad hidrotermal que produce los sulfuros masivos. Así lo indica también la signatura isotópica de plomo del chert, que es apreciablemente más radiogénica que la de los sulfuros masivos. El enriquecimiento en plomo de la facies de chert sulfurado indica la participación de una fuente diferente de la de los sulfuros masivos (sedimentos, agua marina). Por tanto, debe ser contemplada la hipótesis de un chert hidrotermal independiente, en la cual el chert refleja actividad hidrotermal submarina de baja temperatura, que se hace más evidente durante una “ruptura” en la sucesión vulcanosedimentaria, pero que puede haber competido localmente con la actividad hidrotermal de alta temperatura que da origen a los sulfuros masivos. Así, el interés del chert estriba en su significado paleodinámico como marcador de los periodos volcánicos de calma y en su posible papel como cobertura protectora aislante, favorable al depósito de sulfuros masivos.
    Notizen: Abstract Since lenses of chert are common within the volcano-sedimentary succession hosting the massive sulphide deposits of the Iberian Pyrite Belt (Spain and Portugal), we examined numerous chert occurrences, both petrographically and geochemically, to test their possible value for massive sulphide exploration. The chert is found at two main lithostratigraphic levels (upper and lower) that are also interpreted as massive-sulphide bearing. In both cases the chert is located at the top of acidic volcanic sequences or in the associated sediments; we have not been able to observe the relationships between massive sulphides and chert, but some of the large orebodies of the Province (Lousal, La Zarza, Tharsis, Planes-San Antonio body of Rio Tinto, Neves) are described as being locally capped by chert facies. Four main types are recognized among the chert and associated facies: (1) red hematitic chert ± magnetite; (2) radiolarian and/or sedimentary-textured (conglomeratic) chert with hematite and/or Mn oxides; (3) pale sulphidic chert; (4) rhodonite and/or Mn carbonate ± magnetite facies. In the Spanish part of the Province the radiolarian chert is confined to the upper level; the distribution of the other types appears to be haphazard. The hydrothermal origin of the South Iberian chert is shown by its high Fe-Mn and low Co-Ni-Cu contents. The presence of small positive Ce anomalies indicates a shallow marine environment (shelf or epicontinental sea), which is consistent with the volcanological and sedimentological data. The chert was emplaced below the sea floor through chemical precipitation and/or through alteration and replacement of the country rock, residual traces of which are ghost phenocrysts and high Al, Ti and rare earth contents. Macro- and microscopic relationships indicate that the oxide facies (hematite ± magnetite) formed first, probably providing a protective insulating cover against the marine environment and enabling an evolution towards sulphide facies; a phase of Mn carbonate and silicate + quartz ± chlorite + sulphides appears to be even later. It was not possible, through discrimination, to isolate a chert that could be considered as representing a lateral marker of massive sulphides; moreover, both field observations and geochemical data seem to indicate a relative independence of this siliceous sulphide hydrothermal activity from the hydrothermal activity giving rise to the massive sulphides. Such is also indicated by the lead isotopic signature of the chert, which is appreciably more radiogenic than that of the massive sulphides; the lead enrichment in the sulphidic chert facies indicates the participation of a different source (sediments, sea water) from that of the massive sulphides. The hypothesis of an independent hydrothermal “chert” event can thus be envisaged, wherein the chert reflects submarine low-temperature hydrothermal activity that is most apparent during a “break” within the volcano-sedimentary succession and which may locally have competed with the high-temperature hydrothermal activity giving rise to the massive sulphides. The interest of the chert thus rests in its palaeodynamic significance, as a marker of periods of volcanic quiescence, and in its possible role as a protective insulating cap favourable to the deposition of massive sulphides.
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    Standort Signatur Erwartet Verfügbarkeit
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  • 50
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    Springer
    Mineralium deposita 33 (1997), S. 98-110 
    ISSN: 1432-1866
    Quelle: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Thema: Geologie und Paläontologie
    Beschreibung / Inhaltsverzeichnis: Resumen (translated by E. Pascual) Las formaciones ígneas asociadas con los depósitos de sulfuros masivos de la Faja Pirítica Ibérica (IPB) se componen esencialmente de doleritas y lavas básicas y de rocas volcánicas dacíticas a riolíticas; las lavas intermedias son poco abundantes. Las rocas básicas muestran caracteres geoquímicos variables: lavas y doleritas comparables a basaltos alcalinos intraplaca recientes parecen hasta ahora restringidos a las partes W y S de la IPB, mientras que rocas básicas de caracteres comparables a las de toleítas continentales o basaltos relacionados con arcos aparecen en toda la zona. Las rocas ácidas se clasifican como calcoalcalinas del tipo “low-Al2O3, high-Yb”. Para un contenido dado en SiO2, Al2O3 y TiO2, muestran contenidos variables en Zr, Nb y REE. El contenido en tierras raras pesadas decrece de dacitas a riolitas ([Gd/Yb]N ∼ 1), al tiempo que la anomalía de Eu se hace más pronunciada. La modelización de elementos trazas sugiere que las rocas evolucionaron a partir de un magma parental dacítico mediante cristalización fraccionada de hornblenda y plagioclasa. La fusión parcial de un protolito anfibolítico, que parece el modelo más plausible para el origen del magma dacítico, requiere un elevado gradiente T/P en la corteza. La existencia de basaltos alcalinos y de toleítas continentales es congruente con la formación de la IPB en un entorno tectónico distensivo. El emplazamiento en una cuenca “fore-arc”, en un segmento cortical de reciente acreción, se contempla como una hipótesis posible para explicar los caracteres geológicos y petrológicos. Un alto gradiente térmico, junto con la erupción en una cuenca submarina extensional, pueden haber sido los dos ingredientes clave en el desarrollo de los depósitos de sulfuros masivos en la IPB.
    Notizen: Abstract Igneous formations associated with massive sulphide deposits in the Iberian Pyrite Belt (IPB) are essentially composed of basic lavas and dolerites, and dacitic to rhyolitic volcanites; intermediate lavas are subordinate. The basic rocks show variable geochemical characteristics: lavas and dolerites comparable to recent within-plate alkaline basalts seem restricted to the western and southern parts of the IPB, whereas basic rocks comparable to continental tholeiites or arc-related basalts occur across the whole belt. The felsic rocks are classified as calc-alkaline and belong to the “low-Al2O3 and high-Yb type”. At given SiO2, Al2O3 and TiO2 contents, they show variable Zr, Nb, and HREE contents. Heavy-rare-earth element fractionation decreases from the dacites to the rhyolites ([Gd/Yb]N ∼ 1), whereas the negative Eu-anomaly becomes more pronounced. The characteristics of the rhyolites are typical of sulphide-fertile volcanic packages. Trace-element modelling suggests that the felsic rocks evolved from a dacitic parent magma through fractional crystallization of hornblende and plagioclase. Partial melting of an amphibolite protolith, which appears as the most probable model for the origin of this dacitic magma, requires a high T/P gradient in the crust. The occurrence of alkaline basalts and continental tholeiites is consistent with formation of the IPB in a tensional tectonic setting. However, the associated island-arc tholeiites suggest a location in a domain of plate convergence. Emplacement in a fore-arc basin over a recently accreted crustal segment is envisaged as a possible hypothesis to account for the geological and petrological constraints. A high geothermal gradient and eruption in a submarine tensional basin could have been two key ingredients for the development of massive sulphide deposits within the IPB.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    Standort Signatur Erwartet Verfügbarkeit
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  • 51
    ISSN: 1432-1866
    Quelle: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Thema: Geologie und Paläontologie
    Beschreibung / Inhaltsverzeichnis: Resumen (translated by E. Pascual) Estudios mineralógicos y geoquímicos detallados de las mineralizaciones vulcanogénicas de sulfuros de la parte española de la Faja Pirítica Ibérica definen dos asociaciones geoquímicas, mineralógicas y espaciales de oro: 1) el tipo Tharsis-Sotiel-Migollas, en el cual el oro se concentra con (Co + Bi) en zonas de stockwork e interacción en la base de las masas de sulfuros; 2) el tipo Ríotinto-Aznalcóllar-La Zarza, en el que el oro se concentra en facies con signatura polimetálica (Zn + Ag ± As ± Tl ± Hg), en posición distal o bloqueada bajo los sulfuros masivos. El primer tipo se localiza dentro de un dominio que cubre la mitad sur de la faja, caracterizada por la abundancia de facies sedimentarias. La paragénesis mineral indica que la asociación con oro se formó a alta temperatura (〉300 °C) durante las fases iniciales de la génesis de los sulfuros masivos; el oro, que aparece como manchas de electrum muy aurífero (Au 〉 75%), fue transportado por complejos clorurados. El segundo tipo se encuentra en el dominio norte de la cuenca, en donde predominan las facies volcánicas. La paragénesis muestra que la asociación con oro se formó a menor temperatura (〉280 °C), en estadios tardíos de la génesis de los sulfuros masivos. En este caso, el oro fue transportado en complejos bisulfurados [Au(HS2)] y aparece contenido en electrum rico en Ag y Hg (hasta 61,0 y 30,5% en peso respectivamente) y/o arsenopirita aurífera (media de 280  ppm de Au), dos formas minerales que pueden coexistir. Aparentemente la actividad de azufre y la fugacidad de oxígeno fueron factores importantes en el control de la distribución de oro entre los dos minerales, así como para fijar el contenido en Ag del electrum. Este comportamiento antitético del oro en la faja Pirítica Ibérica refleja diferencias en los fluidos mineralizantes de oro, que pueden ser debidas al entorno geológico, bien dominantemente sedimentario, actuando como una barrera para los fluidos auríferos, bien dominantemente volcánico y más abierto a la circulación de agua de mar. Debido a las complicaciones que pueden ocurrir durante la génesis de los sulfuros masivos como respuesta a la fuente y evolución de los fluidos, se plantea la cuestión de si es preciso implicar una o dos etapas de transporte de oro. Por ejemplo, las dos asociaciones pudieron derivar de una única etapa de aporte de oro, con removilización y redistribución del oro desde unas facies precoces con (Co ± Bi) hacia las paragénesis auríferas más tardías en las facies (Zn ± Ag ± As ± Tl ± Hg). Esto no habría ocurrido, o tan sólo de forma limitada, en las masas de tipo Tharsis-Sotiel-Migollas. Alternativamente, las dos asociaciones de oro podrían reflejar dos procesos evolutivos distintos, que se distinguirían por la aparición temprana o tardía del oro en los fluidos hidrotermales. El conocimiento de la asociación de oro en los sulfuros masivos es una ayuda en la exploración de sus posibles facies huéspedes.
    Notizen: Abstract Detailed mineralogical and geochemical studies of the volcanogenic sulphide mineralization in the Spanish part of the Iberian Pyrite Belt (IPB) define two geochemical, mineralogical and spatial gold associations: (1) the Tharsis-Sotiel-Migollas type in which the gold is enriched with (Co ± Bi) in the stockworks and interaction zones at the base of the massive sulphide mound; and (2) the Rio Tinto-Aznalcóllar-La Zarza type in which the gold is enriched in facies with a polymetallic (Zn + Ag ± As ± Tl ± Hg) signature in a distal position or blocked beneath the massive sulphides. The first type is localized within a domain covering the southern half of the belt which is characterized by an abundance of sedimentary facies. The paragenesis shows that the gold association formed at high temperature (〉300 °C) during the initial phases of massive sulphide genesis; the gold, which occurs in patches of very auriferous electrum (Au 〉 75 wt.%), was transported by chloride complexes. The second type is found in the northern domain of the belt where volcanic facies are predominant. The paragenesis shows that the gold association formed at lower temperature (〈280 °C) late in the massive sulphide genesis. This gold was transported by bisulphide complexes [Au(HS)2 −] and is contained in Ag- and Hg-rich electrum (up to 61.0 and 30.5 wt.% respectively) and/or auriferous arsenopyrite (mean of 280 ppm Au), two mineral expressions that are able to coexist. It would appear that sulphur activity and oxygen fugacity were important factors in controlling the distribution of gold between the two host minerals and also in determining the Ag content of the electrum. This antithetic behaviour of the gold in the IPB reflects differences in the gold mineralizing fluids that may be due to the geologic environment; i.e. either dominantly sedimentary and acting as a mechanical barrier for gold bearing fluids, or dominantly volcanic and more open to seawater circulation. The fact that possible complications can occur during massive sulphide genesis, in response to the source and evolution of the fluids, raises the question of whether one or two gold influxes are involved. For example, the two gold associations could derive from a single gold influx, with remobilization and redistribution of the gold from the early (Co ± Bi) facies giving rise to the later gold paragenesis of the (Zn + Ag ± As ± Tl ± Hg) facies; this would not have occurred or would have been limited at the Tharsis-Sotiel-Migollas type orebodies. Alternatively, the two gold associations could reflect two separate evolutionary processes distinguished by the gold appearing either early or late in the hydrothermal fluids. Knowing the gold association of a massive sulphide deposit is an advantage when exploring for potential host facies.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    Standort Signatur Erwartet Verfügbarkeit
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  • 52
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    Springer
    Mineralium deposita 33 (1997), S. 137-149 
    ISSN: 1432-1866
    Quelle: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Thema: Geologie und Paläontologie
    Beschreibung / Inhaltsverzeichnis: Resumen (translated by E. Pascual) Se han recogido datos relacionados con las venas hidrotermales en las proximidades de la mineralización gigante de Riotinto, en la zona de raíz de los sulfuros masivos. Describimos aquí los principales resultados de este estudio, referentes a la geometría del stockwork y sus condiciones de formación. Aunque los estudios de campo y en lámina delgada han demostrado que hay un amplio rango de configuraciones de venas, desde microfracturas (planos de inclusiones fluidas) hasta grandes canales de paleoflujo, dos grupos parecen dominantes. El primero corresponde a pequeñas microfracturas y canales de flujo capilar, rellenos de cuarzo, en tanto que las venas del segundo grupo son mucho más anchas, continuas a lo largo de varios metros y rellenas de cuarzo y sulfuros. La mayor parte de venas son de tensión, y sólo algunas (〈0,1%) muestran cizallado. La variedad en que predomina la pirita (es decir, pirita〉cuarzo) tiende a ser tardía respecto de las venas en que domina el cuarzo (cuarzo〉pirita). La anchura y distribución espacial de las venas es modal más que logarítmica y sus densidades no son fractales, sino que se caracterizan por una distribución de Poisson. Desde la zona inmediatamente subsuperficial hasta más de 100 m bajo la base de los sulfuros masivos, la mayor parte de las venas hidrotermales del stockwork con cuarzo y sulfuros son subparalelas a la base del depósito de sulfuros masivos. La suposición de que la base de éste corresponde a un plano paleohorizontal implica que la mayor parte de las venas sean subhorizontales. Esto es particularmente evidente en el caso de las pequeñas, pero las mayores pueden ser fuertemente oblicuas a la base del depósito. Los fluidos hidrotermales que generaron sulfuros masivos y los stockworks infrayacentes fueron muy salinos y sufrieron probablemente separación de fases sub- o supercrítica en la zona de raíz del sistema. Esta separación de fases fue probablemente el mecanismo que produjo las sobrepresiones periódicas de al menos 20 Mpa necesarias para generar las venas subhorizontales de los stockworks.
    Notizen: Abstract Vein-related data have been collected around the giant Rio Tinto orebody in southern Spain within the root zones of the massive sulphide deposits. Here, we report the main results of this study, concerning the geometry of the stockwork and the conditions of formation. Although field and thin-section studies have shown that a wide range of vein configurations exist, from micro cracks (fluid-inclusion planes) to large paleo-flow channels, two groups seem to dominate. The first corresponds to small, constricted micro cracks and capillary-flow channels, now mainly filled with quartz, whereas the veins of the second group have large widths, are continuous over several meters and are filled with quartz and sulphides. Most are tension veins and only very few (〈0.1%) show evidence of shearing. The pyrite-dominated variety (i.e., pyrite 〉 quartz) tends to post-date the quartz-dominated veins (quartz 〉 pyrite). The vein-thickness and -spacing distribution is modal rather than logarithmic, and their densities are not fractal, but are characterized by a Poisson distribution. From the immediate sub-surface zone to more than 100 m below the base of the massive sulphide deposits, most hydrothermal quartz-sulphide stockwork veins are sub-parallel to the base of the massive sulphide deposit. The assumption that the base of this deposit corresponds to a paleo-horizontal plane, implies that most veins were sub-horizontal. This is particularly evident for small veins, but the larger ones can be strongly oblique to the base of the deposit. The hydrothermal fluids that generated the massive sulphide deposits and underlying stockworks, were very saline and probably underwent sub- or super-critical phase separation in the root zones of the system. This phase separation was the probable mechanism producing the periodic over-pressures of at least 20 MPa that were necessary to generate the sub-horizontal veins of the stockworks.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    Standort Signatur Erwartet Verfügbarkeit
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  • 53
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    Springer
    Mineralium deposita 33 (1997), S. 188-207 
    ISSN: 1432-1866
    Quelle: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Thema: Geologie und Paläontologie
    Beschreibung / Inhaltsverzeichnis: Resumen (translated by E. Pascual) Un estudio detallado de las rocas volcánicas de Aljustrel, mediante petrografia, química mineral, geoquímica de roca total y datos de isótopos estables previamente publicados muestra que estas rocas han sufrido metasomatismo en grado extremo. Los fenómenos metasomáticos presentados se explican con precisión mediante un modelo convectivo con agua de mar. Es evidente la evolución del fluido derivado del agua de mar conforme progresa en profundidad a través de las rocas, desde un fluido frío, oxidante y con magnesio a otro reductor, sin magnesio y enriquecido en Si, Fe, Cu y Zn. Varias líneas de evidencia (mineralogía de los feldespatos, relaciones paragenéticas entre la alteración regional y de las zonas mineralizadas, isótopos estables) muestran que la temperatura y la circulación hidrotermal se incrementaron con el tiempo y que la relación agua-roca evolucionó de valores muy altos a bajos. De acuerdo con nuestros datos, de las rocas volcánicas de Aljustrel se han extraído unas 30 ppm de Cu y unas 100 ppm de Zn. Esto implica, para ambos metales, que la misma roca lixiviada ha producido los 2 Mt de Cu y los 6 Mt de Zn contenidos en los depósitos de sulfuros masivos del área de Aljustrel. En cuanto al Fe, una media de alrededor de 1% fue extraída de las rocas, produciendo metal suficiente para explicar todo el Fe de los depósitos de sulfuros masivos y de los sedimentos químicos suprayacentes. Este estudio documenta de forma semicuantitativa la procedencia de los principales metales en depósitos mayores de sulfuros masivos, mediante lixiviado por agua de mar de sus rocas huéspedes inmediatas.
    Notizen: Abstract Detailed study of the Aljustrel volcanic rocks, through petrography, mineral chemistry, whole-rock geochemistry, and previously published stable isotope data, show that the rocks experienced extreme metasomatism. The metasomatic phenomena presented are explained accurately by a sea-water convective model. The evolution of the sea-water-derived fluid as it progresses downwards through the rocks is evident, from cold, oxidising, Mg-bearing, to hot, reducing, Mg-free, and enriched in Si, Fe, Cu, Zn. Several lines of evidence (feldspar mineralogy, paragenetic relations between regional and ore-zone alteration, and stable isotope data) show that the temperature of the hydrothermal circulation increased through time, and that the water-to-rock ratio evolved from very high to low values. According to our data, about 30 ppm Cu and some 100 ppm Zn were removed from the Aljustrel Volcanics. This implies, for both metals, the same amount of leached rock to produce the 2 Mt Cu and 6 Mt Zn contained in the massive sulphide deposits of the Aljustrel area. With regard to Fe, about 1% was on average removed from the rocks, producing enough metal to account for all the Fe in the MS deposits and overlying chemical sediments. This study documents semi-quantitatively the provenance of the main metals in major massive sulphide deposits via sea water leaching of the immediate host rocks.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    Standort Signatur Erwartet Verfügbarkeit
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  • 54
    ISSN: 1432-1866
    Quelle: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Thema: Geologie und Paläontologie
    Beschreibung / Inhaltsverzeichnis: Resumen (translated by E. Pascual) La mineralización de Filón Norte (Tharsis, Faja Pirítica Ibérica) es uno de los mayores sulfuros masivos del mundo, con más de 100 Mt millones de toneladas de reservas originales. La estructura actual de la mineralización está formada por un sistema complejo e imbricado de cabalgamientos de bajo ángulo buzantes al norte y de edad varisca. Hay tres unidades tectónicas mayores, cada una con sus propios rasgos litológicos e hidrotermales, separadas por potentes zonas de falla. Internamente se organizan en un sistema de tipo “duplex” buzante hacia la zona de raíz con las rocas más competentes formando “horses” rodeados por filonitas. La mineralización encaja en la Unidad Inferior y está formada por varias láminas apiladas de sulfuros masivos y pizarras en las que encaja una zona de “stockwork” sin zonación hidrotermal evidente. La Unidad Intermedia consiste en pizarras y basaltos (espilitas) con una ankeritización generalizada y cortadas por abundantes brechas hidrotermales. La Unidad Superior es la menos hidrotermalizada y está formada por dacitas silicificadas y un “sill” de diabasas. La reconstrucción tectónica sugiere que la secuencia está invertida y las rocas ígneas alteradas se localizaban orginariamente bajo los sulfuros masivos. Los isótopos de carbono, oxígeno y azufre de los sulfuros masivos y las otras rocas hidrotermales así como la asociación mineral y la evolución paragenética sugieren que la precipitación de los sulfuros en el fondo marino tuvo lugar a bajas temperaturas (〈≈150 °C) sin evidencias, al menos en las zonas observables, de un evento de alta temperatura rico en cobre. Una ebullición esporádica v profunda bajo el fondo marino es probablemente la responsable de la formación de las brechas hidrotermales y la gran amplitud del “stockwork”. Su enriquecimiento en Co y Au se interpreta como debido a la superposición de varios factores críticos que incluyen la relación con pizarras negras, la baja temperatura de formación y la ebullición de los fluidos hidrotermales. La potencia y configuración actual de la mineralización es debida al apilamien totectónico de una delgada y extensa lámina (2–4 km2) de sulfuros masivos. Esta se formó en relación con la exhalación difusa en el fondo marino de agua marina caliente equilibrada con las rocas infrayacentes. La precipitación de los sulfuros masivos tuvo lugar por efecto de un enfriamiento instantáneo, actividad bacteriogénica y deposición de partículas en una cuenca de características inusuales, restringida, somera y anóxica con poca entrada de material detrítico, con una importante actividad hidrotermal relacionada con una fracturación extensional sinsedimentaria. La resedimentación de los sulfuros es importante y da lugar a la mezcla de las facies proximales y distales. La deformación tectónica es muy heterogénea y está fundamentalmente canalizada a lo largo de las bandas de deformación dominadas por las filonitas. Por lo tanto, las texturas sedimentarias y diagenéticas están bien preservadas fuera de estas bandas de deformación. En los sulfuros masivos, la recristalización varisca es poco importante y sólo algunas de estas texturas tempranas han sido reemplazadas por otras de tipo tectónico o metamórfico. El stockwork está más deformado que los sulfuros masivos. La deformación ha tenido un efecto crítico sobre la morfología actual de la masa y la distribución de los minerales metálicos. Este depósito es un ejemplo típico de sulfuros masivos ricos en Zn laminares, anóxicos, de baja temperatura, encajados en pizarras y formados en cuencas extensionales ensiálicas.
    Notizen: Abstract The Filón Norte orebody (Tharsis, Iberian Pyrite Belt) is one of the largest pyrite-rich massive sulphide deposits of the world. The present structure of the mineralization consists of an internally complex low-angle north-dipping thrust system of Variscan age. There are three major tectonic units separated by thick fault zones, each unit with its own lithologic and hydrothermal features. They are internally organized in a hinterland dipping duplex sequence with high-angle horses of competent rocks (igneous and detritic rocks and massive sulphides) bounded by phyllonites. The mineralization is within the Lower Unit and is composed of several stacked sheets of massive sulphides and shales hosting a stockwork zone with no obvious zonation. The Intermediate Unit is made up of pervasively ankeritized shales and basalts (spilites). Here, hydrothermal breccias are abundant. The Upper Unit is the less hydrothermally altered one and consists of silicified dacites and a diabase sill. The tectonic reconstruction suggests that the sequence is inverted and the altered igneous rocks were originally below the orebody. Carbon, oxygen and sulphur isotopes in the massive sulphides and hydrothermal rocks as well as the mineral assemblage and the paragenetic succession suggest that the sulphide precipitation in the sea floor took place at a low temperature (〈≈150 °C) without indication, at least in the exposed section, of a high-temperature copper-rich event. Sporadic deep subsea-floor boiling is probably responsible for the formation of hydrothermal breccias and the wide extension of the stockwork. Its Co-Au enrichment is interpreted as being related with the superposition of some critical factors, such as the relationship with black shales, the low temperature of formation and the boiling of hydrothermal fluids. The present configuration and thickness of the orebody is due to the tectonic stacking of a thin and extensive blanket (2–4 km2) of massive sulphides with low aspect ratio. They were formed by poorly focused venting of hot modified seawater equilibrated with underlying rocks into the seafloor. Massive sulphide precipitation took place by hydrothermal fluid quenching, bacteriogenic activity and particle settling in an unusual, restricted, euxinic and shallow basin (brine pool?) with a low detritic input but with important hydrothermal activity related to synsedimentary extensional faulting. Resedimentation of sulphides seems to be of major importance and responsible for the observed well-mixed proximal and distal facies. The tectonic deformation is largely heterogeneous and has been mostly channelled along the phyllonitic (tectonized shales) deformation bands. Thus, sedimentary and diagenetic textures are relatively well-preserved outside the deformation bands. In the massive sulphides, superimposed Variscan recrystallization is not very important and only some early textures are replaced by metamorphic/tectonic ones. The stockwork is much more deformed than the massive sulphides. The deformation has a critical effect on the present morphology of the orebody and the distribution of the ore minerals. This deposit is a typical example of the sheet-like, shale-hosted, anoxic, low temperature and Zn-rich massive sulphides developed in a ensialic extensional basin.
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  • 55
    ISSN: 1432-1866
    Quelle: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Thema: Geologie und Paläontologie
    Beschreibung / Inhaltsverzeichnis: Resumen (translated by E. Pascual) El distrito minero de Aznalcóllar está situado en el extremo sureste de la Faja Pirítica Ibérica (IPB). Muestra rasgos geológicos complejos que pueden ayudar a comprender la geología y la metalogenia de toda la IPB. El distrito abarca varios depósitos minerales con reservas totales de más de 130 Mt de sulfuros masivos. Las leyes medias son de alrededor de 3,6% de Zn, 2% de Pb, 0,4% de Cu y 65 ppm de Ag. También se ha explotado una mineralización de stockwork con una ley de 0,6% de Cu y 30 Mt. Entre los materiales que afloran en el distrito de Aznalcóllar aparecen rocas volcánicas y detríticas de las tres unidades estratigráficas principales descritas en la IPB: grupo de filitas y cuarcitas (PQ), complejo vulcanosedimentario (VSC) y grupo Culm. En el VSC se pueden distinguir dos secuencias. La Secuencia Sur (SS) es principalmente detrítica, y como rasgo peculiar incluye pillow-lavas basálticas y niveles calizos de aguas someras, estas últimas hacia la parte superior de la secuencia. En cambio, la secuencia de Aznalcóllar-Los Frailes (AFS) contiene gran cantidad de rocas volcánicas, relacionadas con los dos principales episodios volcánicos en la IPB. Estos diferentes rasgos estratigráficos indican una distinta evolución paleogeográfica durante el Devónico superior y el Carbonífero inferior. Los sulfuros masivos aparecen asociados a pizarras negras depositadas sobre el primer volcanismo félsico (VA1) Los datos de palinomorfos obtenidos de este horizonte de pizarras negras indican una edad Estruniense para los sulfuros masivos, y en consecuencia una edad devónica superior para el primer ciclo volcánico VA1. Los datos de campo y texturales de las rocas volcánicas sugieren una evolución desde un ambiente de depósito subaéreo (VA1) hasta condiciones hidroclásticas subvolcánicas para el VA2. Esta evolución puede relacionarse con la compartimentación y profundización creciente de la cuenca sedimentaria, tal como lo sugieren también los cambios en los sedimentos asociados, incluidas las pizarras negras y los sulfuros masivos. Pese a los cambios en el tipo de vulcanismo, éste corresponde a una composición de dacítica a riolítica, tanto en las series piroclásticas como en las subvolcánicas. El principal proceso ígneo que controla la variación química de las rocas volcánicas es la cristalización fraccionada de plagioclasa (+accesorios). Este proceso tuvo lugar en reservorios subsuperficiales a poca profundidad, y dio lugar a un rango de composiciones que cubre el rango total de variación de la IPB. La orogenia hercínica produjo una evolución estructural compleja, con una fase mayor de deformación dúctil F1 en la que se produjeron pliegues que evolucionaron a cabalgamientos por laminación del flanco corto. Estos cabalgamientos produjeron repetición tectónica de las mineralizaciones masivas y de stockwork. En Aznalcóllar, parte de la mineralización de stockwork cabalga los sulfuros masivos. Las estructuras anteriores son cortadas por grandes cabalgamientos en régimen frágil y por fallas tardías de desgarre. Los rasgos originales de los depósitos de sulfuros masivos corresponden a mantos extensos con espesores variables (10 a 100 m), asociados sistemáticamente con stockworks. La alteración del muro de los depósitos muestra una zona clorítica interna y otra sericítica periférica. También tienen lugar procesos de silicificación, carbonatización y piritización. La alteración hidrotermal debe considerarse como un proceso multiestadio, que se caracteriza geoquímicamente por enriquecimiento en Fe, Mg y Co e intenso lixiviado de alcalinos y Ca. REE, Zr, Y y Hf también se movilizan en las aureolas cloríticas internas. Tanto en stockworks como en sulfuros masivos se distinguen tres tipos de mineralización, denominadas pirítica, polimetálica y pirítica rica en Cu. Esta última es más común en stockworks, en tanto que la polimetálica predomina en los sulfuros masivos. La zonación de las masas de sulfuros corresponde aproximadamente a un VHMS típico, pero muchas de las zonas alternantes piríticas y polimetálicas están probablemente relacionadas con la tectónica. Aunque la secuencia de cristalización es compleja, se pueden distinguir varias asociaciones minerales, a saber: pirítica framboidal, pirítica de alta temperatura (∼300 °C), pirítica coloforme, polimetálica y una asociación tardía rica en cobre de alta temperatura (350 °C). Los datos de inclusiones fluidas sugieren que los fluidos hidrotermales cambiaron continuamente de temperatura y salinidad, tanto en el tiempo como en el espacio. Las temperaturas y salinidades más altas corresponden a las zonas de stockwork más internas y a los fluidos más tardíos. Un análisis estadístico de poblaciones de las inclusiones fluidas señala tres estadios de actividad hidrotermal, a temperaturas bajas (〈200 °C), intermedias (200–300 °C) y altas (300–400 °C). Los valores de 34S en los sulfuros masivos son inferiores a los de las mineralizaciones de stockwork, lo cual sugiere una actividad bacteriana moderada, favorecida por un ambiente euxínico durante el depósito de las pizarras negras. La íntima relación entre éstas y los sulfuros masivos apunta a un origen de estos últimos por precipitación y reemplazamiento de las pizarras negras, que habrían actuado como barreras, tanto físicas como químicas, durante el depósito de los sulfuros. La actividad hidrotermal comenzó durante el depósito de las pizarras negras, iniciada por un ascenso del gradiente térmico debido al ascenso de magmas básicos. Sugerimos un modelo genético en tres etapas: 1) Circulación difusa de fluidos a baja temperatura, que habría producido lentejones y diseminaciones de pirita interestratificadas con las pizarras negras. Localmente, también se produjo flujo canalizado a mayor temperatura; 2) actividad hidrotermal cíclica, a baja o media temperatura, que produjo la mayor parte de las mineralizaciones piríticas y polimetálicas, y 3) etapa de alta temperatura, que produjo mineralizaciones ricas en cobre con bismuto, sobre todo en la zona de stockwork.
    Notizen: Abstract The Aznalcóllar mining district is located on the eastern edge of the Iberian Pyrite Belt (IPB) containing complex geologic features that may help to understand the geology and metallogeny of the whole IPB. The district includes several ore deposits with total reserves of up to 130 Mt of massive sulphides. Average grades are approximately 3.6% Zn, 2% Pb, 0.4% Cu and 65 ppm Ag. Mined Cu-rich stockwork mineralizations consist of 30 Mt with an average grade of 0.6% Cu. Outcropping lithologies in the Aznalcóllar district include detrital and volcanic rocks of the three main stratigraphic units identified in the IPB: Phyllite-Quartzite Group (PQ), Volcano-Sedimentary Complex (VSC) and Culm Group. Two sequences can be distinguished within the VSC. The Southern sequence (SS) is mainly detritic and includes unusual features, such as basaltic pillow-lavas and shallow-water limestone levels, the latter located in its uppermost part. In contrast, the Aznalcóllar-Los Frailes sequence (AFS) contains abundant volcanics, related to the two main felsic volcanic episodies in the IPB. These distinct stratigraphic features each show a different palaegeographic evolution during Upper Devonian and Lower Carboniferous. Massive sulphides occur in association with black shales overlying the first felsic volcanic package (VA1) Palynomorph data obtained from this black shale horizon indicate a Strunian age for massive sulphides, and consequently an Upper Devonian age for the VA1 cycle. Field and textural relationships of volcanics suggest an evolution from a subaerial pyroclastic environment (VA1) to hydroclastic subvolcanic conditions for the VA2. This evolution can be related to compartmentalizing and increasing depth of the sedimentary basin, which may also be inferred from changes in the associated sediments, including black shales and massive sulphides. Despite changes in the character of volcanism, the same dacitic to rhyolitic composition is found in both pyroclastic and subvolcanic igneous series. The main igneous process controlling chemical variation of volcanics is fractional crystallization of plagioclase (+accessories). This process took place in shallow, sub-surface reservoirs giving rise to a compositional range of rocks that covers the total variation range of felsic rocks in the IPB. The Hercynian orogeny produced a complex structural evolution with a major, ductile deformation phase (F1), and development of folds that evolved to thrusts by short flank lamination. These thrusts caused tectonic repetition of massive and stockwork orebodies. In Aznalcóllar, some of the stockwork mineralization overthrusts massive sulphides. These structures are cut by large brittle overthrusts and by late wrench faults. The original geometric features of massive sulphide deposits correspond to large blankets with very variable thicknesses (10 to 100 m), systematically associated with stockworks. Footwall rock alteration exhibits a zonation, with an inner chloritic zone and a peripheral sericitic zone. Silicification, sulphidization and carbonatization processes also occur. Hydrothermal alteration is considered a multi-stage process, geochemically characterized by Fe, Mg and Co enrichment and intense leaching of alkalies and Ca. REE, Zr, Y and Hf are also mobilized in the inner chloritic zones. Three ore types occur, both in stockworks and massive sulphides, named pyritic, polymetallic and Cu-pyritic. Of these, Cu-pyritic is more common in stockworks, whereas polymetallic is prevalent in massive sulphides. Zoning of sulphide masses roughly sketches a typical VHMS pattern, but many alternating polymetallic and barren pyritic zones are probably related to tectonics. Although the paragenesis is complex, several successive mineral associations can be distinguished, namely: framboidal pyritic, high-temperature pyritic (300 °C), colloform pyritic, polymetallic and a late, Cu-rich high-temperature association (350 °C). Fluid inclusion data suggest that hydrothermal fluids changed continuously in temperature and salinity, both in time and space. Highest Th and salinities correspond to inner stockworks zones and later fluids. Statistic population analysis of fluid inclusion data points to three stages of hydrothermal activity, at low (〈200 °C), intermediate (200–300 °C) and high temperatures (300–400 °C). 34S values in massive sulphides are lower than in stockwork mineralization suggesting a moderate bacterial activity, favoured by the euxinoid environment prevailing during black shale deposition. The intimate relation between massive sulphides and black shales points to an origin of massive sulphides by precipitation and replacement within black shale sediments. These would have acted both as physical and chemical barriers during sulphide deposition. Hydrothermal activity started during black shale deposition, triggered by a rise in thermal gradient due to the ascent of basic magmas. We suggest a three-stage genetic model: (1) low temperature, diffuse fluid flow, producing pyrite-bearing lenses and disseminations interbedded with black shales; locally, channelized high-T fluid flow occurs; (2) hydrothermal cyclic activity at a low to intermediate temperature, producing most of the pyritic and polymetallic ores, and (3) a late high-temperature phase, yielding Cu-rich and Bi-bearing mineralization, mainly in the stockwork zone.
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  • 56
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    Springer
    Mineralium deposita 33 (1998), S. 225-225 
    ISSN: 1432-1866
    Quelle: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Thema: Geologie und Paläontologie
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    Standort Signatur Erwartet Verfügbarkeit
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  • 57
    ISSN: 1432-1866
    Quelle: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Thema: Geologie und Paläontologie
    Beschreibung / Inhaltsverzeichnis: Resumen (translated by E. Pascual) El Instituto Geológico e Mineiro (IGM) ha desarrollado en un proyecto de exploración de sulfuros masivos polimetálicos en el segmento NW de la Faja Pirítica Ibérica (IPB), en un área comprendida entre Grândola y Alcácer do Sal. La zona nunca había sido investigada previamente para sulfuros polimetálicos. Los caracteres geológicos y estructurales del sector son peculiares, por cuanto cualquier posible formación del Paleozoico superior, de edad carbonífera inferior, que pudiera contener sulfuros masivos polimetálicos estaría oculta bajo los depósitos cenozoicos de la cuenca terciaria de Baixo-Sado. El principal método de exploración usado en este área de alto riesgo al N de la falla de Grândola ha sido la gravimetría. El sector mostró varias zonas de interés, entre las cualessa destacaba la de Valverde-Lagoa Salgada, en donde en Agosto de 1992 se encontró un yacimiento de sulfuros masivos polimetálicos, llamado Lagoa Salgada. De acuerdo con las características geológicas del área y la naturaleza de los objetivos estudiados se usaron otras técnicas de prospección, concretamente geología, magnetometría, resistividad, sondeos eléctricos, prospección magnetotelúrica, sísmica y sondeos mecánicos. Bajo una cubierta terciaria de 128 m de grueso se encontró el depósito completo, con un gossan de 15 m de grosor, producido por paleoalteración, y zona de enriquecimiento supergénico. El gossan da paso a sulfuros masivos cuyas intersecciones, en ocasiones, sobrepasan los 60 m. Éstos son limitados dos a muro por una importante falla con fuerte caolinización asociada, interpretada como una falla inversa en el flanco inverso de una estructura anticlinal. La composición química de la mineralización muestra fuertes variaciones en todo el depósito, con valores significativos en Zn, Pb, Sn, Cu, As, Hg, Sb, Cd, Au y Ag. En su fase inicial, el yacimiento es de tamaño medio (tonelaje estimado ∼ 5 Mt). Se relaciona con una gran anomalía de gravedad, de orientación general NW-SE, investigada mediante 15 sondeos llevados a cabo por el IGM. Los sondeos cortan un importante centro volcánico de naturaleza intermedia, alrededor del cual se desarrolló una intensa actividad hidrotermal asociada con la mineralización contemporánea de sulfuros masivos. La anomalía de gravedad tiene dos núcleos, uno al NW y otro central, a unos 450 m del primero, en las que se desarrollaron respectivamente una masa de pirita con sulfuros polimetálicos y una mineralización de sulfuros de tipo stockwork. Este descubrimiento ha conducido a un extenso proyecto de exploración que ha confirmado el potencial minero del sector NW de la IPB, al N de la falla de Grândola, en donde no se conocía previamente la existencia de sulfuros masivos. Un consorcio formado por la Sociedade Mineira Rio Artezia (Grupo RTZ) y la Empresa de Desenvolvimento Mineiro (EDM) se ha interesado por el potencial minero del área Valverde-Lagoa Salgada. El IGM cesó sus actividades en 1993.
    Notizen: Abstract Gravimetry was the main exploration method used in this high risk area to the north of the Grândola fault, in the Iberian Pyrite Belt (IPB). It showed several targets, among which the Valverde-Lagoa Salgada area stood out. Here, in August 1992, a polymetallic massive sulphide orebody was found, named Lagoa Salgada. According to the geological characteristics of the area and to the nature of the surveyed targets, other exploration techniques were used, namely: geology, magnetometry, resistivity, electrical sounding, magneto-telluric, seismic and mechanical drilling. The deposit was found under a Tertiary cover, 128 m in depth, complete with a 15 m thick gossan, caused by paleoalteration, with a supergene enrichment zone. This gossan gave way to massive sulphides, with intersections, at times, exceeding 60 m. They are limited towards the footwall by an important fault with strong associated kaolinization, which is interpreted as a reverse fault, placed on the inverse limb of an anticlinal structure. Throughout the deposit, the chemical composition of the mineralization showed great variation reaching significant values of Zn, Pb, Sn, Cu, As, Hg, Sb, Cd, Au and Ag. In the initial phase the deposit has an estimated tonnage of 5 Mt. It is related to a large gravity anomaly with the general orientation NW-SE, which was investigated by 15 boreholes made by the Instituto Geológico e Mineiro. The drilling cut an important volcanic centre of an acid to intermediate nature, around which intense hydrothermal activity was associated with contemporaneous sulphide mineralization. The gravity anomaly has two nuclei, a NW and a central one, about 450 m apart, where a pyrite orebody with polymetallic sulphides and stockwork sulphide mineralization are developed. This discovery led to an extensive exploration project that confirmed the mining potentialities of the NW sector of the IPB, to the north of Grândola fault, where previously no polymetallic sulphide occurrences were known.
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  • 58
    ISSN: 1432-1866
    Quelle: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Thema: Geologie und Paläontologie
    Beschreibung / Inhaltsverzeichnis: Resumen (translated by E. Pascual) El periodo que va del Devónico tardío al inicio del Carbonífero (Dinantiense) dentro de la Cadena Hercínica occidental está marcado por la formación de depósitos de sulfuros masivos ligados a rocas volcánicas: Chessy y Chizeuil en las sucesiones de Brévenne y Somme en el Macizo Central francés; Bodennec y La Porte-aux-Moines en la cuenca de Châteaulin en el Macizo Armoricano francés; Riotinto, Neves Corvo, Tharsis y otros en el Complejo Vulcanosedimentario de la Faja Pirítica Ibérica, y Ketara, Draa Sfar y Hajar en el distrito de Jebilet-Guemassa de la Meseta meridional marroquí. Aunque estos depósitos muestran un emplazamiento ligeramente diacrónico en respuesta a la migración del evento metalífero, del Devónico tardío en Francia al Dinantiense en Marruecos, se puede definir a grandes rasgos un ‘‘pico” metalífero a unos 350 m.a. La mineralización de los sectores armoricano, ibérico y marroquí tuvo lugar en dominios epicontinentales de la zona exterior del cinturón hercínico, mientras que la del nordeste del Macizo Central tuvo lugar en su zona interna. Esta diferencia se refleja en variaciones, tanto en las características geoquímicas de los minerales (Sn en las zonas externas y Mo-Ni en las internas) como en su signatura isotópica de plomo, con clara participación del manto sólo en las zonas internas. En muchos casos las mineralizaciones parecen estar estrechamente relacionadas al miembro félsico de las asociaciones magmáticas bimodales, aunque los depósitos de sulfuros masivos de las zonas externas están asociados con más frecuencias con rocas sedimentarias, y los de las zonas internas con rocas volcánicas félsicas. Otro rasgo que conviene señalar es que las secuencias huéspedes de los depósitos de sulfuros masivos parecen desarrollarse frecuentemente sobre formaciones caóticas (particularmente con olistolitos), reflejando el comienzo de la actividad hercínica orogénica en la zona externa. Se puede concluir que el pico de mineralizaciones se desarrolló en dominios tectónicos tensionales durante un periodo de convergencia de placas, y que ocurrió hace unos 350 m.a. después de un periodo mayor devónico de compresión, pero antes del cierre continental carbonífero.
    Notizen: Abstract The Late Devonian-Early Carboniferous (Dinantian) within the Western Hercynides is marked by the formation of volcanic-hosted massive sulphide deposits: Chessy and Chizeuil in the Brévenne and Somme successions of the French Massif Central; Bodennec and La Porte-aux-Moines in the Châteaulin Basin of the French Armorican Massif; Rio Tinto, Neves-Corvo, Tharsis, etc., in the Volcano-Sedimentary formation of the Iberian Pyrite Belt; and Ketara, Draa Sfar and Hajar in the Jebilet-Guemassa district of the Moroccan Southern Meseta. Although these deposits show a slightly diachronous emplacement in response to a progressive migration of the metalliferous event from Late Devonian in France to Dinantian in Morocco, it is nevertheless possible to define an overall metalliferous ‘‘peak” around 350 Ma. The mineralization of the Armorican, Iberian and Moroccan sectors took place in epicontinental domains of the outer zone of the Hercynian belt, whereas that of the northeastern Massif Central occurred within the inner zone of the belt. This difference is registered by variations both in the geochemical characteristics of the ores (Sn in the outer zone and Mo-Ni in the inner zone) and in their lead isotopic signatures (clear mantle participation exclusively in the inner zone). In many cases the ores appear to be closely related to the felsic member of a bimodal magmatic association, although the massive sulphide deposits in the outer zone are more commonly associated with sedimentary rocks whereas those in the inner zone are hosted by felsic volcanic rocks. Another feature that should be noted is that the host sequences of the massive sulphide deposits commonly seem to be underlain by chaotic formations (notably with olistoliths) reflecting the beginning of Hercynian orogenic activity in the outer zone. It can be concluded that the peak mineralization took place within tensional domains developed during a period of plate convergence, and that it occurred around 350 Ma after a major period of Devonian compression but before the Carboniferous continental closure.
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  • 59
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    Springer
    Mineralium deposita 33 (1998), S. 238-254 
    ISSN: 1432-1866
    Quelle: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Thema: Geologie und Paläontologie
    Notizen: Abstract Although several hundred kimberlites have been discovered in the past 20 years in Brazil, the Brazilian diamond production has been derived almost entirely from sedimentary deposits: diamond-bearing conglomerates of different ages and recent alluvials or terraces. Conglomerates as a source of diamond production may not be very significant in economic terms but are extremely important in geological terms because they are the main, known sources of the recent alluvial deposits of Brazil. In this sense, Brazil shows a sharp contrast with other large-scale producing countries, such as South Africa, Botswana, Russia and Australia, where the production comes largely from kimberlites. It has similarities with Angola and India. In the former, the Calonda conglomerates and, in the latter, the Banganapalli conglomerates are as important as sources as are the kimberlites, either because diamonds are recovered from them directly or because they feed the alluvials. But Brazil differs from these countries regarding the age of the oldest diamond finds. While in Angola they are restricted to the Cretaceous and in India to the Upper Proterozoic, in Brazil they spread from the Lower/Middle Proterozoic to the Cretaceous. Brazil is thus a very privileged area to study diamond sedimentary deposits, not only because they are numerous and have economic importance, but also and mainly because they occur in sedimentary sequences of at least four different ages. The recognition of common geological features in diamond sedimentary sequences of different ages led to the conclusion that their recurrence through time reflect fundamental processes which can be put together in a rift evolutionary model. In this study seven different diamondiferous districts in Brazil are briefly described and their rift-related features are emphasised. These features include the position in the sedimentary pile both of the diamond-bearing conglomerates and the volcanic events, as well as the proximal character in relation to growth-faults and the horizontal linear distribution of the conglomerates. The proposed model, stems from a sedimentary reasoning. It links primary diamond sources and related volcanism to rifts, and substantiates the idea that kimberlite/lamproite extrusions predate tectonic paroxysm such that, after erosion, diamonds from those extrusions end up in proximal rift-infill sediments. Here the timing of the extrusion of the primary diamond source rocks is similar to the one determined by White et al. who produced structural evidence to establish their model.
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  • 60
    ISSN: 1432-1866
    Quelle: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Thema: Geologie und Paläontologie
    Notizen: Abstract The sulfur isotopic composition of sulfides and barite from hydrothermal deposits at the Valu Fa Ridge back-arc spreading center in the southern Lau Basin has been investigated. Sulfide samples from the White Church area at the northern Valu Fa Ridge have δ34S values averaging +3.8‰ (n= 10) for bulk sphalerite-chalcopyrite mineralization and +4.8‰ for pyrite (n= 10). Barite associated with the massive sulfides exhibits an average of +20.7‰ (n= 10). Massive sulfides from the active Vai Lili hydrothermal field at the central Valu Fa Ridge have much higher δ34S ratios averaging +8.0‰ for bulk sphalerite-chalcopyrite mineralization (n= 5), +9.3‰ for pyrite samples (n= 5), and +8.0‰ and +10.9‰ for a chalcopyrite and a sphalerite separate, respectively. The isotopic composition of barite from the Vai Lili field is similar to that of barite from the White Church area and averages +21.0‰ (n= 8). Sulfide and barite samples from the Hine Hina area at the southern Valu Fa Ridge have δ34S values that are considerably lighter than those observed for samples from the other areas and average −4.9‰ for pyrite (n= 9), −4.0 and −5.7‰ for two samples of sphalerite-chalcopyrite intergrowth, and −3.4‰ for a single chalcopyrite separate. The total spread in the isotopic composition of sulfides from Vai Lili and Hine Hina is more than 20‰ over a distance of less than 30 km. The δ34S values of sulfides at Hine Hina are the lowest values so far reported for volcanic-hosted polymetallic massive sulfides from the modern seafloor. Barite from the Hine Hina field also has unusually light sulfur with δ34S values of +16.1 to +16.7‰ (n= 5). Isotopic compositions of the sulfides at Hine Hina indicate a dramatic decrease in δ34S from ordinary magmatic values and, in the absence of biogenic sulfur and/or boiling, imply a unique 34S-depleted source of probable magmatic origin. Sulfide-barite mineralization in the Hine Hina area is associated with a distinctive alteration assemblage consisting of cristobalite, pyrophyllite, kaolinite, opal-CT, talc, pyrite, native sulfur, and alunite. Similar styles of alteration are typically known from high-sulfidation epithermal systems on land. Alunite-bearing, advanced argillic alteration in the Hine Hina field confirms the role of acidic, volatile-rich fluids, and a δ34S value of +10.4‰ for the sulfur in the alunite is consistent with established kinetic isotope effects which accompany the disproportionation of magmatic SO2 into H2S and H2SO4. The Hine Hina field occurs near the propagating tip of the Valu Fa back-arc spreading center (i.e., dominated by dike injections and seafloor eruptions) and therefore may have experienced the largest contribution of magmatic volatiles of the three fields. The sulfur isotopic ratios of the hydrothermal precipitates and the presence of a distinctive epithermal-like argillic alteration in the Hine Hina field suggest a direct contribution of magmatic vapor to the hydrothermal system and support the concept that magmatic volatiles may be an important component of some volcanogenic massive sulfide-forming hydrothermal systems.
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  • 61
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    Mineralium deposita 33 (1998), S. 255-265 
    ISSN: 1432-1866
    Quelle: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Thema: Geologie und Paläontologie
    Notizen: Abstract Sulphide separates from mineralisation in Archaean and Palaeoproterozoic host rocks of the Disko Bugt area, central West Greenland, have been analysed for trace elements and Pb isotopes. Isotopic compositions of lead from sulphide separates of Archaean supracrustal rocks show wide variations. Archaean semi-massive sulphides and sulphides separated from felsic metavolcanites yield an errorchron age of 2821 +77/−82, with a model μ1 value of 7.36; this is comparable to the estimated age of the supracrustal rocks. The two most prominent mineralised sites, the Andersen and Eqip prospects, have their own unique Pb isotope pattern; the Andersen prospect is considered to represent the result of an upper crust of Palaeoproterozoic process. The sulphide separates of Palaeoproterozoic epigenetic mineralisation hosted in shear and fault zones in the supracrustal rocks has a common origin, e.g. linked to a metamorphic peak and/or hydrothermal alteration. Gold-bearing samples indicate a local origin for associated sulphides; no regional processes seem to be involved in the formation of the gold occurrences.
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  • 62
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    Springer
    Mineralium deposita 33 (1998), S. 266-282 
    ISSN: 1432-1866
    Quelle: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Thema: Geologie und Paläontologie
    Notizen: Abstract The Hussainiyat ironstone deposit (Jurassic) is mainly pisolitic, intraclastic and concretionary in texture, associated with kaolinite mudstones and/or with quartzose sandstone. The ironstone consists mainly of goethite, hematite, kaolinite and quartz. The deposits were derived from a variety of parent rocks that included low- and medium-rank metamorphics, intermediate igneous rocks and pre-existing sediments of the Nubio-Arabian Shield. The source rocks suffered deep chemical weathering in the hinterland, and the products (Fe-oxyhydroxides, kaolinite and quartz) were later transported by rivers to the depositional site. Iron was mostly carried in association with the clay fraction and organic matter. Several genetic processes were involved in the ironstone formation. Iron concretions were mostly formed by bacterial build-up in swamps and marshes, and were subsequently embedded in kaolinitic mud. Large-scale development of groundwater laterite blanket (ferricrete) occurred later in the overbanks and floors of wadis, under oxidizing pedogenic conditions. During this stage iron was mobilized from the kaolinitic deposits and migrated upward in dry seasons and, to a lesser extent, downward in wet seasons. Pisolites and oolites grew in situ in the kaolinitic soil at the upper limit of the fluctuating water table. This ferricrete blanket had a wide and continuous extension within an elongated paleodepression. Seasonal heavy rain periods resulted in the flow of ephemeral streams and rivers, where major parts of this ferricrete was reworked and deposited with quartz sand and mud clasts as channel deposits. The original pisolitic-colloform ironstone was reworked continuously to form a semi-continuous sheet. In such wet seasons, additional Fe-enrichment took place as cementing materials or overgrowths.
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  • 63
    ISSN: 1432-1866
    Quelle: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Thema: Geologie und Paläontologie
    Notizen: Abstract A supersaline, metal-rich brine (ca. 40 weight% total chloride salt) was extracted from 3708 m depth of well WD-1a in the Kakkonda Granite by reverse circulation after a standing time about 196 hours. The estimated borehole temperature exceeds 500 °C near the bottom. Tritium content and the relationship between δD and δ18O show that the injected borehole fluid (river water) evidently mixed with an isotopically heavy and ancient fluid. The phase analysis showed that a gas phase separated from a brine and that a brine concentrated in the borehole as the borehole temperature recovered after cooling by drilling fluids. We think the original fluid was trapped in the Kakkonda Granite and mixed with the borehole fluid through fine fractures induced by thermal stress.
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  • 64
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    Springer
    Mineralium deposita 33 (1998), S. 283-297 
    ISSN: 1432-1866
    Quelle: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Thema: Geologie und Paläontologie
    Notizen: Abstract The kaolin deposits of the Amazon region of Brazil are of lateritic origin, modified by subsequent reduced lacustrine and/or swamp environment. They are contemporaneous with lateritic bauxites found in the same region, all formed from aluminium silicate rocks. These are principally sedimentary rocks from the Cretaceous period (Itapecuru and Alter do Chão), but also include metamorphic and felsic volcanic rocks. After erosion of the upper part of these profiles they became locally a substratum for swampy and/or lacustrine environments mostly developed over the clayey saprolitic horizon where kaolin occurs. The saprolitic horizon is made up mainly of iron-mottled kaolinite which has been subject to an intense deferrification, which has increased the kaolin brightness and thickness. The kaolins are basically made up of well-crystallized kaolinite, quartz, sometimes illite-muscovite, anatase and hematite. In certain locations, crandallite-goyazite is also present. The deposits studied differ from each other in the mineral content levels, concentration of principal elements and in trace element distribution. The greatest quantity of quartz and, consequently SiO2, is intrinsically related to the type of parent rock. Small sedimentary deposits occur in alluvial flood plains located not very far from the lateritic source.
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  • 65
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    Springer
    Mineralium deposita 33 (1998), S. 302-309 
    ISSN: 1432-1866
    Quelle: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Thema: Geologie und Paläontologie
    Notizen: Abstract In December 1993, the first massive sulfides were recovered from the Indian Ocean floor, north of the Rodrigues Triple Junction. The polymetallic deposit is situated in the fourth Central Indian Ridge segment, close to the rift axis; it is hydrothermally no longer active. The deposit appears to be typical of mid-ocean ridge massive sulfide occurrences but is in a phase of disintegration and about to be buried by sediment. The chimney structures were formed by multiple hydrothermal events and are now degraded by mass wasting showing various stages of weathering. Later-stage, low-temperature hydrothermal mineralization processes led to copper and gold enrichment. Here we report on the geological setting, mineral zonation, different sulfide types and stages of formation of the “Sonne Sulfide Field”, which is part of a larger mineralized zone.
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  • 66
    ISSN: 1432-1866
    Quelle: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Thema: Geologie und Paläontologie
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  • 67
    ISSN: 1432-1866
    Quelle: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Thema: Geologie und Paläontologie
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
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  • 68
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
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    Mineralium deposita 33 (1998), S. 310-316 
    ISSN: 1432-1866
    Quelle: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Thema: Geologie und Paläontologie
    Notizen: Abstract After a century of virtual neglect, exploration in the Yandal greenstone belt of the Yilgarn Craton of Western Australia has yielded resources of 12 Moz Au during the 1990s. Success has come from a combination of conceptual geological models, surface prospecting, understanding the weathering environment, and systematic drilling. The Archaean Yandal greenstone belt comprises a lowermost banded iron formation, extensive basalt and dolerite sills, ultramafic rocks, intermediate to felsic volcanic rocks, and variable clastic sedimentary rocks. Early shear zones trend NNW and form the greenstone belt margins, or trend N–S within the belt. Later brittle cross-faults are critical in gold localization. Gold resources and past production at major deposits include Bronzewing (4 Moz Au), Jundee (5 Moz) Mt.␣McClure (1 Moz) and Darlot (3␣Moz, some of which was produced before 1990). All major deposits are hosted by Fe-rich mafic rocks, and mineralization displays a combination of different orientations and morphologies. Quartz veins are surrounded by broad carbonate alteration with proximal K-mica and Fe-sulphides. The recognition of a critical role for the late brittle structures in localizing gold implicates mid-crustal processes within the greenstone belt for fluid generation, and with the host rock control, supports the model in which fluid was derived by metamorphic devolatilization.
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  • 69
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    Springer
    Mineralium deposita 33 (1998), S. 346-358 
    ISSN: 1432-1866
    Quelle: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Thema: Geologie und Paläontologie
    Notizen: Abstract Magnesite, siderite and dolomite are characteristic alteration minerals occurring in Miocene hanging wall rocks of dacitic composition which host the Kuroko orebodies. These carbonates generally occur in a more stratigraphically upper horizon than chlorite alteration zone surrounding the orebodies. The Mg/(Mg+Fe) ratios of the carbonates decrease from the central alteration zone to marginal zone. The Mg/(Mg+Fe) ratios of carbonates and chlorite positively correlate. The δ18O and δ13C values of magnesite, siderite and dolomite positively correlate with each other and lie between the igneous and marine carbonate values. The petrographic, isotopic and fluid inclusion characteristics and thermochemical modelling calculations indicate that magnesite and dolomite formed in the central zone close to the orebodies due to the interaction of hydrothermal solutions with the biogenic marine carbonates. Calcite formed further from the orebodies from hydrothermal fluids which did not contain a biogenic marine carbon component. The compositional and textural relationships indicate that superimposed alterations (chlorite alteration and carbonate alteration) occurred in hanging wall rocks. The mode of occurrences and the Mg/(Mg+Fe) ratios of magnesite and dolomite occurring in hanging wallrocks are useful in the exploration for concealed volcanogenic massive sulfide-sulfate deposits.
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  • 70
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    Springer
    Mineralium deposita 33 (1998), S. 379-390 
    ISSN: 1432-1866
    Quelle: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Thema: Geologie und Paläontologie
    Notizen: Abstract The Janggun iron deposits, Republic of␣Korea, occur as lens-shaped magnesian skarn, magnetite and base-metal sulfide orebodies developed in the Cambrian Janggun Limestone Formation. Mineralization stage of the deposits can be divided into two separate events. The skarn stage (107 Ma) consists of magnetite, pyrrhotite, base-metal sulfides, carbonates and magnesian skarn minerals. The hydrothermal stage (70 Ma) consists of base-metal sulfides, native bismuth, bismuthinite, tetrahedrite, boulangerite, bournonite and stannite. Mineral assemblages, chemical compositions and thermodynamic considerations indicate that formation temperatures, −log fs2 and −log fo2 values of ore fluids from the skarn stage were 433 to 345 °C, 8.1 to 9.7 bar and 29.4 to 31.6 bar, and the hydrothermal stage was 245 to 315 °C, 10.4 to 13.2 bar and 33.6 to 35.4 bar, respectively. Thermochemical considerations indicate that the XCO2 during magnesian skarnization ranged from 0.06 to 0.09, and the activity of H+ presumably decreased when the fluids equilibrated with host dolomitic limestone which resulted in a pH change from about 6.1 to 7.8, and decreases in fo2 and fs2. The δ34S values of ore sulfides have a wide range from 3.2 to 11.6 ‰ (CDT). Calculated 34SH2 S values of ore fluids are 2.9 to 5.4 ‰ (skarn stage) and 8.7 to 13.5 ‰ (hydrothermal stage). These are interpreted to represent an initial deep-seated, igneous source of sulfur which gave way to influence of oxidized sedimentary sulfur to hydrothermal stage. The δ13C values of carbonates in ores range from −4.6 to −2.5 ‰ (PDB). It is likely that carbon in the ore fluids was a mixture of deep-seated magmatic carbon and dissolved carbon of dolomitic limestone. The δ18OH2 O and δD values (SMOW) of water in the ore fluids were 14.7 to 1.8 and −85 to −73 ‰ during the skarn stage and 11.1 to −0.2 and −87 to −80 ‰ in the hydrothermal stage.
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  • 71
    ISSN: 1432-1866
    Quelle: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Thema: Geologie und Paläontologie
    Notizen: Abstract In the Central Andes (Bolivia) and the Western Carpathians (Slovakia) Sb-(Au) deposits are of wide-spread occurrence. They may be subdivided into two principal types: (I) shear zone-hosted and (II) stockwork-like Sb deposits. Type I Sb deposits are widespread in fine-grained metasedimentary, granitic and gneissic rocks. Type II is only found in volcanic rocks and may be further subdivided into acid sulphate-type (IIa) and low sulphidation-type (IIb). This more subtle classification is based upon the presence or absence of sulphate and K feldspar and applied in the same way as for epithermal Au deposits elsewhere. Type III is a composite vein type transitional between types I and II Sb deposits. Mesothermal deposits (type I) were emplaced syntectonically and synmetamorphically under low grade to very low grade stage metamorphic conditions. The mineralising fluids are likely to have been derived from crustal sources through devolatalisation. Epithermal types (IIa) and (IIb) are related in time and space with the formation of acidic to intermediate (sub)volcanic rocks of Miocene age. To distinguish the various types of Sb mineralisation, Bi, Ag, As and Hg have proven most diagnostic. These elements are anomalously enriched in the volcanic-hosted types IIa and IIb, whereas type I mineralisation are poor in Bi, Ag and As. The element contents of these trace elements in type III deposits vary according to the position of the host mineralisation relative to the Tertiary igneous rocks. Hg tends to be enriched in type II mineralisations. Even so there are also some Sb mineralisations of type I abundant in Hg, possibly due to tetrahedrite intergrown with stibnite. In contrast to porphyry copper deposits, Sb deposits are distal relative to the subduction zone. They are confined to sections of the fold belt where the continental crust is thick and was subject to strong horizontal displacements. The ratio of horizontal to vertical crustal movements during the structural evolution of the fold belt and the resultant skewness of the geothermal gradient played a decisive role for the type of volcanic-hosted Sb deposits (types IIa and IIb) to develop and to what extent composite stibnite deposits (type III) evolved.
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  • 72
    ISSN: 1432-1866
    Quelle: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Thema: Geologie und Paläontologie
    Notizen: Abstract Seven 187Re-187Os ages were determined for molybdenite and pyrite samples from two well-dated Precambrian intrusions in Fennoscandia to examine the sustainability of the Re-Os chronometer in a metamorphic and metasomatic setting. Using a new 187Re decay constant (1.666 × 10−11y−1) with a much improved uncertainty (±0.31%), we determined replicate Re-Os ages for molybdenite and pyrite from the Kuittila and Kivisuo prospects in easternmost Finland and for molybdenite from the Kabeliai prospect in southernmost Lithuania. These two localities contain some of the oldest and youngest plutonic activity in Fennoscandia and are associated with newly discovered economic Au mineralization (Ilomantsi, Finland) and a Cu-Mo prospect (Kabeliai, Lithuania). Two Re-Os ages for vein-hosted Kabeliai molybdenite average 1486 ± 5 Ma, in excellent agreement with a 1505 ± 11 Ma U-Pb zircon age for the hosting Kabeliai granite pluton. The slightly younger age suggests the introduction of Cu-Mo mineralization by a later phase of the Kabeliai magmatic system. Mean Re-Os ages of 2778 ± 8 Ma and 2781 ± 8 Ma for Kuittila and Kivisuo molybdenites, respectively, are in reasonable agreement with a 2753 ± 5 Ma weighted mean U-Pb zircon age for hosting Kuittila tonalite. These Re-Os ages agree well with less precise ages of 2789 ± 290 Ma for a Rb-Sr whole-rock isochron and 2771 ± 75 Ma for the average of six Sm-Nd TDM model ages for Kuittila tonalite. Three Re-Os analyses of a single pyrite mineral separate, from the same sample of Kuittila pluton that yielded a molybdenite separate, provide individual model ages of 2710 ± 27, 2777 ± 28, and 2830 ± 28 Ma (Re = 17.4, 12.1, and 8.4 ppb, respectively), with a mean value of 2770 ± 120 Ma in agreement with the Kuittila molybdenite age. The Re and 187Os abundances in these three pyrite splits are highly correlated (r = 0.9994), and provide a 187Re-187Os isochron age of 2607 ± 47 Ma with an intercept of 21 ppt 187Os (MSWD = 1.1). It appears that the Re-Os isotopic system in pyrite has been reset on the millimeter scale and that the 21 ppt 187Os intercept reflects the in situ decay of 187Re during the ∼160 to 170 m.y. interval from ∼2778 Ma (time of molybdenite ± pyrite deposition) to ∼2607 Ma (time of pyrite resetting). When the Re-Os data for molybdenites from the nearby Kivisuo prospect are plotted together with the Kuittila molybdenite and pyrite data, a well-constrained five-point isochron with an age of 2780 ± 8 Ma and a 187Os intercept (−2.4 ± 3.8 ppt) of essentially zero results (MSWD = 1.5). We suggest that the pyrite isochron age records a regional metamorphic and/or hydrothermal event, possibly the time of Au mineralization. A proposed Re-Os age of ∼2607 Ma for Au mineralization is in good agreement with radiometric ages by other methods that address the timing of Archean Au mineralization in deposits worldwide (so-called “late Au model”). Molybdenite, in contrast, provides a robust Re-Os chronometer, retaining its original formation age of ∼2780 Ma, despite subsequent metamorphic disturbances in Archean and Proterozoic time.
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  • 73
    ISSN: 1432-1866
    Quelle: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Thema: Geologie und Paläontologie
    Notizen: Abstract The Upper Moulouya district displays three main types of lead ores in the Hercynian domain: (1) Aouli vein-type deposits hosted in the Hercynian basement, (2) Zeïda Triassic sandstone-hosted, and (3) Mibladén carbonate-hosted stratabound and karstic mineralisations in the Mesozoic cover. Lead and sulfur isotope studies indicate that the Aouli vein-type and Zeïda sandstone-hosted stratabound mineralisations are formed by a mixing of two fluids, one formed by the leaching of the Aouli granite massif, and the other by leaching of the Saharian basement. These deposits may correspond to the same Triassic metallogenic event, focused along fault systems or within permeable sandstone. Deep fluids were mobilised during the early extensional movements associated with the opening of the Atlas rifting basin. The Mississippi Valley type Mibladén mineralisation is related to a distinct metallogenic event superimposed on the earlier one, and represents a remobilization of earlier concentrations, or a more recent leaching of the same sources, but with a more pronounced contribution of the local organic matter. The Upper Moulouya area demonstrates the close relationship between vein type and sandstone-hosted lead-zinc mineralisations, and their major differences with Mississippi Valley type deposits.
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  • 74
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
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    Mineralium deposita 33 (1998), S. 391-405 
    ISSN: 1432-1866
    Quelle: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Thema: Geologie und Paläontologie
    Notizen: Abstract The Hodgkinson Province is a tract of␣multiply deformed Silurian-Devonian rocks in north␣Queensland, Australia. Gold-bearing quartz veins from the West Normanby Goldfield in the northern Hodgkinson Province were emplaced during the Permian D4 event, broadly coeval with regional granite emplacement. Taylors Fault, a major structure that formed during D2, hosts the veins which infill dilatational jogs opened during sinistral-normal reactivation of the fault in D4. Veins contain graphitic laminations that formed when fault planes segmented wallrocks adjacent to the veins, producing tabular clasts that were tectonically sliced into the reefs. Laminations are the result of progressive shear strain, associated with continued movement on the faults, which caused strain-enhanced dissolution of silicate minerals and residual graphite enrichment in the clasts. This process produced graphite-coated shear planes that delimit zones of grain size reduction in the veins. Laminations commonly contain stylolites, which nucleated on pronounced sinuosities of the shear planes due to progressive shortening during D4. Gold particles have preferentially nucleated in zones of relatively coarser-grained quartz adjacent to the shear planes, where shortening strain caused microfracturing and allowed fluid access. Gold may have been introduced with the quartz, but was redistributed within the reefs and localized along the laminations by the effects of synchronous, progressive deformation. Regionally, gold deposits show close spatial relationships with granite plutons of the Permian Whypalla Supersuite. Relationships in the West Normanby Gold Field support a regional model of reef emplacement and gold mineralization during the Permian D4 event.
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  • 75
    ISSN: 1432-1866
    Quelle: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Thema: Geologie und Paläontologie
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  • 76
    ISSN: 1432-1866
    Quelle: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Thema: Geologie und Paläontologie
    Notizen: Abstract The fluorite deposits of the Valle de Tena, Central Pyrenees, include stratabound (Portalet) and vein (Lanuza and Tebarray) deposits the formation of which are linked to a Namurian-Westfalian emersion episode and to post-Hercynian hydrothermal systems similar to those occurring elsewhere in Hercynian Europe. In this study, strontium isotopes were used to determine the source(s) of strontium, and by inference calcium, of the fluorite mineralizations, as well as the nature of the ore-forming fluids. Fluorite and calcite from each deposit have similar 87Sr/86Sr ratios (Portalet 0.7085–0.7108; Lanuza 0.7086–0.7104 and Tebarray 0.7086–0.7101). In all deposits, the Sr isotope composition of most of the Ca-minerals is more radiogenic than that of the host limestones. This indicates that the Ca-minerals contain a mixture of Sr derived locally from the host limestones and 87 Sr-enriched Sr leached from silicate minerals in the siliciclastic portion of the basement sequence and in granites from the study area. Volcanic rocks are ruled out as a significant Sr source for the fluorite deposits. The observed trend in 87Sr/86Sr versus 1/Sr support a fluid-rock interaction model which satisfactorily reproduces the marked 87Sr-enrichment in the fluorites and calcites from the deposits.
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  • 77
    ISSN: 1432-1866
    Quelle: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Thema: Geologie und Paläontologie
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
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  • 78
    ISSN: 1432-1866
    Quelle: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Thema: Geologie und Paläontologie
    Notizen: Abstract In 1992, the Ford gold deposit was rediscovered during field work in the Kwekwe district near the Indarama mine, approximately 200 km southwest of Harare, Zimbabwe. Based on diamond drilling and open pit operations, estimated ore reserves are at least 3 Mt with an average gold content of 2.5 g/t. The gold deposit is located within a porphyritic granite dike with a thickness of 20–50 m, striking 800 m NNW-SSE. It dips 60–70° to the NE and intrudes a volcano-sedimentary sequence of tholeiitic basalts, acid volcanics, and banded iron formations of the Bulawayan Group (2900–2700 Ma). The intrusion of the dike occurred at 2541 ± 17 Ma (Pb/Pb step leaching technique) within a second order structure and is related to displacement along transcrustal deformation zones such as the Sherwood- and Taba-Mali deformation zones. Gold mineralization is confined to the s-shaped part of the dike intrusion. At the present stage of mining, the deposit is characterized by the absence of major veins, the occurrence of disseminated pyrite throughout the orebody, and a distinct alteration pattern comparable to that of porphyry copper deposits. The central zone of the dike shows a typical K-feldspar-albite-sericite-pyrite (±biotite?) alteration, followed by a narrow external propylitic zone. Native gold with an average Ag content of 5 wt.% and a grain size of 5–100 μm is rare and occurs within pyrite and secondary K-feldspar. Sulphide mineral separates of pyrite and minor arsenopyrite probably contain invisible gold (up to 120 ppm) amenable to cyanidation. Anomalously high gold values of ∼7 ppm have been found in the transition between the K-feldspar-albite-sericite-pyrite alteration and the propylitic zone, indicating that the mineralizing fluids have experienced major physico-chemical changes in the transition zone. The regional tectonic position of the orebody suggests that the emplacement of the granite and the gold mineralization are structurally controlled. The Pb isotope composition of several leachates of pyrite indicate isotope disequilibrium with magmatic minerals and point to a contamination of the mineralizing fluid by Pb from older (sedimentary?) sources. Stable isotope geochemistry of sulphides and carbonates as well as the metallogeny of the deposit compare to shear-zone hosted gold mineralization in the Kwekwe district, for which a deep crustal origin has been discussed. Although this study documents contrasting evidence for a porphyry-gold versus a shear-zone type of mineralization, it is suggested that gold-bearing fluids were syntectonically introduced into a ductile shear zone within the granite dike either during cooling of the intrusion or later in Archaean or early Proterozoic times.
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  • 79
    ISSN: 1432-1866
    Quelle: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Thema: Geologie und Paläontologie
    Notizen: Abstract Uranium deposits containing molybdenum and fluorite occur in the Central Mining Area, near Marysvale, Utah, and formed in an epithermal vein system that is part of a volcanic/hypabyssal complex. They represent a known, but uncommon, type of deposit; relative to other commonly described volcanic-related uranium deposits, they are young, well-exposed and well-documented. Hydrothermal uranium-bearing quartz and fluorite veins are exposed over a 300 m vertical range in the mines. Molybdenum, as jordisite (amorphous MoS2), together with fluorite and pyrite, increase with depth, and uranium decreases with depth. The veins cut 23-Ma quartz monzonite, 20-Ma granite, and 19-Ma rhyolite ash-flow tuff. The veins formed at 19-18 Ma in a 1 km2 area, above a cupola of a composite, recurrent, magma chamber at least 24 × 5 km across that fed a sequence of 21- to 14-Ma hypabyssal granitic stocks, rhyolite lava flows, ash-flow tuffs, and volcanic domes. Formation of the Central Mining Area began when the intrusion of a rhyolite stock, and related molybdenite-bearing, uranium-rich, glassy rhyolite dikes, lifted the fractured roof above the stock. A breccia pipe formed and relieved magmatic pressures, and as blocks of the fractured roof began to settle back in place, flat-lying, concave-downward, “pull-apart” fractures were formed. Uranium-bearing, quartz and fluorite veins were deposited by a shallow hydrothermal system in the disarticulated carapace. The veins, which filled open spaces along the high-angle fault zones and flat-lying fractures, were deposited within 115 m of the ground surface above the concealed rhyolite stock. Hydrothermal fluids with temperatures near 200 °C, 18OH2O∼−1.5, DH2O∼−130, log f O2 about −47 to −50, and pH about 6 to 7, permeated the fractured rocks; these fluids were rich in fluorine, molybdenum, potassium, and hydrogen sulfide, and contained uranium as fluoride complexes. The hydrothermal fluids reacted with the wallrock resulting in precipitation of uranium minerals. At the deepest exposed levels, wallrocks were altered to sericite; and uraninite, coffinite, jordisite, fluorite, molybdenite, quartz, and pyrite were deposited in the veins. The fluids were progressively oxidized and cooled at higher levels in the system by boiling and degassing; iron-bearing minerals in wall rocks were oxidized to hematite, and quartz, fluorite, minor siderite, and uraninite were deposited in the veins. Near the ground surface, the fluids were acidified by condensation of volatiles and oxidation of hydrogen sulfide in near-surface, steam-heated, ground waters; wall rocks were altered to kaolinite, and quartz, fluorite, and uraninite were deposited in veins. Secondary uranium minerals, hematite, and gypsum formed during supergene alteration later in the Cenozoic when the upper part of the mineralized system was exposed by erosion.
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  • 80
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    Mineralium deposita 33 (1998), S. 461-476 
    ISSN: 1432-1866
    Quelle: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Thema: Geologie und Paläontologie
    Notizen: Abstract The most important tin mineralization in Thailand is associated with the Late Cretaceous to Middle Tertiary western Thai granite belt. A variety of deposit types are present, in particular pegmatite, vein and greisen styles of mineralization. A feature common to most of the deposits is that they are associated with granites that were emplaced into the Khang Krachan Group, which consists of poorly sorted, carbonaceous, pelitic metasediments. Most of the deposits contain low to moderately saline aqueous fluid inclusions and aqueous-carbonic inclusions with variable CH4/CO2 ratios. Low salinity aqueous inclusions represent trapped magmatic fluid in at least one case, the Nong Sua pegmatite, based on their occurrence as primary inclusions in magmatic garnet. Aqueous-carbonic inclusions are commonly secondary and neither the CO2 nor NaCl contents of these inclusions decrease in progressively younger inclusions, implying that they are not magmatic in origin. Reduced carbon is depleted in the metasediments adjacent to granites and the δD values greisen muscovites are variable, but are as low as −134 per mil, indicative of fluid interaction with organic (graphitic) material. This suggests that the aqueous-carbonic fluid inclusions represent fluids that were produced, at least in part, during contact metamorphism-metasomatism. By comparing the western Thai belt with other Sn-W provinces it is evident that there is a strong correlation between fluid composition and pressure in general. Low to moderately saline aqueous inclusions and aqueous-carbonic inclusions are characteristic of mineralization associated with relatively deep plutonic belts. Mineralized pegmatites are also typically of deeper plutonic belts, and pegmatite-hosted deposits may contain cassiterite that is magmatic (crystallized from granitic melt) or is orthomagmatic-hydrothermal (crystallized from aqueous or aqueous-carbonic fluids) in origin. The magmatic aqueous fluids (those that were exsolved from granitic melts) are interpreted to have had low salinities. As a consequence of the low salinities, tin is partitioned in favour of the melt on vapour saturation. Thus with a high enough degree of fractionation, the crystallization of a magmatic cassiterite (or different Sn phase such as wodginite) is inevitable. Because tin is not partitioned in favour of the vapour phase upon water saturation of the granitic melts, it is proposed that relatively deep vein and greisen systems tend to form by remobilization processes. In addition, many deeper greisen systems are hosted, in part, by carbonaceous pelitic metasediments and the reduced nature of the metasediments may play a key role in remobilizing tin. Sub-volcanic systems by contrast are characterized by high temperature-high salinity fluids. Owing to the high chlorinity, tin is strongly partitioned in favour of the vapour and cassiterite mineralization can form by of orthomagmatic-hydrothermal processes. Similar relationships between the depth of emplacement and fluid composition also appear to apply to other types of granite-hosted deposits, such as different types of molybdenum deposits.
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  • 81
    Digitale Medien
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    Mineralium deposita 33 (1998), S. 495-512 
    ISSN: 1432-1866
    Quelle: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Thema: Geologie und Paläontologie
    Notizen: Abstract Altered and mineralised rocks at Peak Hill, are confined to a 300–500 m wide, north-south striking, steeply dipping, shear zone that is flanked by the Mingelo Volcanics along its western side, and Cotton Formation siltstones along its eastern side. This shear zone is defined by extensive zones of cataclasite and strongly foliated micaceous schists in marked contrast to the largely undeformed nature of the adjacent rocks. Advanced argillic assemblages (quartz-kaolinite-pyrite ± alunite ± illite) occur throughout the core of the Peak Hill deposit. Propylitic assemblages, including albite, quartz, interlayered chlorite-smectite, illite and ankerite, and a narrow discontinuous zone of argillic (quartz-illite-pyrite) alteration are developed in the Mingelo Volcanics along the western side of the deposit. Propylitic, argillic and advanced argillic assemblages are overprinted by an internally zoned phase of phyllosilicate alteration that grades inwards from a peripheral sericite-clay-chlorite assemblage, through phyllic assemblages (muscovite/illite-pyrite ± paragonite) to a pyrophyllite-pyrite ± diaspore ± andalusite altered core. Au-Cu mineralisation is hosted by barite-pyrite veins that cut the advanced argillic assemblage, but pre-date the phyllosilicate-dominated alteration. Native Au (lacking Ag), calaverite, Te-rich tennantite-tetrahedrite (goldfieldite), chalcopyrite, covellite and chalcocite occur in the barite-pyrite veins. No ore-bearing minerals were detected in any of the alteration assemblages. The total gold content of the Peak Hill deposit is currently 720 K ounces and this includes 100 K ounces of unmined reserves. Within the shear zone phyllosilicate minerals are developed in strain shadows and partly define the stretching lineation associated with dip-slip movement. The zonation within the phyllosilicate assemblages mimics the geometry of bends in the shear zone and minor internal structures. These textures indicate that the phyllosilicate alteration developed synchronous with movement on the shear zone. Earlier advanced argillic alteration and mineralisation are developed in rocks derived from both sides of the shear zone. Hydrothermal activity associated with the earlier advanced argillic alteration was therefore either synchronous with juxtaposition of these distinct rock units, or occurred during a later phase of movement on the shear zone. Cross-cutting fibrous textures in the auriferous barite-pyrite veins indicate that repeated fracturing of the advanced argillic altered rocks accompanied development of successive generations of auriferous veins. Concentrations of auriferous veins are localised in steeply plunging shoots that are oriented parallel to the stretching lineation in the shear zone. These features all indicate movement on the host shear zone accompanied each phase of hydrothermal activity in the Peak Hill deposit. The location, alteration zonation and distribution of mineralised veins within the deposit are intimately controlled by deformation on the host shear zone synchronous with hydrothermal activity. The development of high-sulphidation hydrothermal systems synchronous with deformation along brittle-ductile shear zones is a predictable consequence of intrusive activity during deformation in areas characterised by a high geothermal gradient. The close relationship between tectonism and hydrothermal activity indicates that these deposits are likely to be located in the vicinity of regional-scale shear zones. Deposits are likely to be aligned parallel to the regional-scale structural “grain” and restricted to areas of conspicuous deformation as is the case at Peak Hill (and Temora, NSW). Aluminous alteration zones concentrated in the vicinity of regional-scale structures in the Carolina Slate Belt may be a further example of this style of hydrothermal activity.
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  • 82
    ISSN: 1432-1866
    Quelle: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Thema: Geologie und Paläontologie
    Notizen: Abstract Oxygen isotopic composition of emerald from 62 occurrences and deposits in the world reveals a wide range in δ18O (SMOW) between +6.2 and +24.7‰. The δ18O-values for each deposit are restricted and can be used to determine the origin of emerald from the world's most important producers. The δ18O-value of emerald appears to be a fingerprint of its origin, especially for gems of exceptional quality from Colombia (eastern emerald zone, δ18O = +16.8 ± 0.1‰; western emerald zone, δ18O = +21.2 ± 0.5‰), Afghanistan (δ18O = +13.5 ± 0.1‰), Pakistan (Swat-Mingora districts, δ18O = +15.7 ± 0.1‰), Brazil (Santa Terezinha de Goiás, δ18O = +12.2 ± 0.1‰; Quadrilatero Ferrifero, δ18O = +6.9 ± 0.4‰) and Zimbabwe (Sandawana, δ18O = +7.5 ± 0.5‰). Furthermore, the 18O-composition of emerald appears to be a good marker of its geological environment because the data suggest that host-rock-buffering of fluid δ18O is considerable during fluid-rock interaction.
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  • 83
    ISSN: 1432-1866
    Quelle: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Thema: Geologie und Paläontologie
    Notizen: Abstract Precious-metal mineralization in the southern Apuseni Mountains of western Romania is hosted by mid-Miocene (∼14 Ma) andesitic stocks and lava flows. The mineralized veins are surrounded by aureoles of hydrothermal alteration, consisting of quartz, sericite, K-feldspar, pyrite and calcite. The alteration process caused a total homogenization of initial 87Sr/86Sr in the rocks. Ages determined for the hydrothermal alteration are 13.7–15.7 Ma, indicating that hydrothermal alteration immediately followed igneous activity. Furthermore, a large influx of radiogenic Sr took place during alteration, this Sr probably being derived from the hydrothermal leaching of continental meta-sedimentary rocks in the basement.
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  • 84
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    Mineralium deposita 33 (1998), S. 531-532 
    ISSN: 1432-1866
    Quelle: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Thema: Geologie und Paläontologie
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  • 85
    ISSN: 1432-1866
    Quelle: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Thema: Geologie und Paläontologie
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
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  • 86
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    Mineralium deposita 33 (1998), S. 539-546 
    ISSN: 1432-1866
    Quelle: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Thema: Geologie und Paläontologie
    Notizen: Abstract Zones of advanced argillic alteration constituting lithocaps are commonplace in the shallow parts of porphyry copper systems. Similar lithocaps are also recognized in the shallowly eroded southern part of the Bolivian tin-silver belt, where mineralization typically is centred on felsic volcanic domes. A well-preserved lithocap at Potosí is dominated by vuggy residual quartz and contained the world's largest silver resource, whereas the basal remnant of a lithocap at Pulacayo is composed of barren quartz-alunite. Minor gold occurs in the structurally controlled roots of a lithocap at Tasna. The mineralization in these lithocaps is of high-sulphidation type and was generated in the epithermal environment. In contrast, the tin- and base metal-bearing massive sulphide veins and associated sericitic and quartz-tourmaline alteration that underlie the Bolivian lithocaps are typified by sulphides of low sulphidation state, but are dominantly mesothermal rather than epithermal in character. Magma chemistry is believed to account for the characterization of Bolivian lithocaps by silver-tin-antimony and porphyry copper lithocaps by gold-copper-arsenic. Low-grade, bulk-tonnage silver mineralization within Bolivian lithocaps and high-grade tin-bearing veins concealed beneath them both constitute attractive exploration objectives.
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  • 87
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    Mineralium deposita 33 (1998), S. 560-567 
    ISSN: 1432-1866
    Quelle: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Thema: Geologie und Paläontologie
    Notizen: Abstract Base metal deposits in western Cuba belong to the SEDEX type, as defined by Carne and Cathro (1982). The age of the mineralisation is Jurassic. The host rocks of the deposits are gritstones, sandstones and black shales, with no igneous rocks involved. Sulphur isotopic data from pyrite and chalcopyrite indicate a biogenic and magmatic origin, at least for part of the Cuban sulphides. The inferred tectonic setting of these deposits is that of a passive continental margin. The Pb-Zn-Cu mineralisation in Cuba is hosted in the siliciclastic sedimentary rocks of the San Cayetano Formation (Lower-Upper Jurassic in age), which indicates derivation of quartzose grains from recycled orogen source areas, related to either the Grenville or Pan African granitic-metamorphic belts.
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  • 88
    ISSN: 1432-1866
    Quelle: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Thema: Geologie und Paläontologie
    Notizen: Abstract The Quebrada Marquesa Quadrangle in Chile exhibits a series of mineralizations comprising manto-type manganese and copper deposits of Lower Cretaceous age, and copper and silver veins of Tertiary age. The deposits are hosted by volcanic and volcaniclastic units of the Arqueros (Hauterivian-Barremian) and Quebrada Marquesa (Barremian-Albian) Formations. Three episodes of manganese mineralization (Mn1-3) are recognized within the study area. Hydrothermal activity leading to episodes 1 and 3 was of minor importance, while the second one (Mn2) gave rise to major manto-type deposits of both manganese and copper in the Talcuna mining district. Extensional faulting during Tertiary time resulted in block faulting and the unroofing of the oldest andesitic volcanics and marine sediments (Arqueros Formation). This episode was accompanied by magmatic and hydrothermal activity leading to vein formation in the Arqueros (Ag) and Talcuna (Cu) districts. The latter veins cross-cut the previous manto-type copper deposits. Ore mineralogy is similar in both styles of mineralization (manto- and vein-type) and consists mainly of chalcopyrite and bornite, with variable amounts of galena, tetrahedrite (vein-related), chalcocite, sphalerite, pyrite, hematite, digenite and covellite. Alteration processes at Talcuna can be divided into two categories, those related to the Lower Cretaceous manto-type episode (LK alteration: chlorite-epidote-calcite-albite, prehnite, zeolite), and those associated with the locally mineralized normal faults of Tertiary age (Tt alteration: chlorite-calcite, sericite). The Arqueros silver veins display an ore mineralogy consisting of arquerite, argentite, native silver, polybasite, cerargyrite and pyrargyrite-proustite; associated alteration includes strong chloritization of the country rock. The manto-type deposits formed from fluids of salinity between 11 and 19 wt.% NaCl equivalent and temperatures between 120 and 205 °C. Mineralizing fluids during the vein-type stage circulated at lower temperatures, between 70 and 170 °C, with salinity values in a wide range from 3 to 27 wt.% NaCl equivalent. This distribution of salinities is interpreted as the result of the complex interplay of two different processes: boiling and fluid mixing; the former is considered to control the major mineralogical, textural and fluid inclusion features of the vein-type deposits. We suggest that the Lower Cretaceous mineralization (manto-type stage) developed in response to widespread hydrothermal activity (geothermal field-type) involving basinal brines.
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  • 89
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    Mineralium deposita 33 (1998), S. 568-578 
    ISSN: 1432-1866
    Quelle: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Thema: Geologie und Paläontologie
    Notizen: Abstract The Hokko prospect is located in the Minamikayabe area southwestern Hokkaido, Japan, where gold-bearing quartz veins of Pliocene age are exposed at the surface. The alteration mineral assemblage is typical of low-sulfidation epithermal systems, with the quartz veins associated with adularia alteration overprinted on Late Miocene propylitic alteration. Fluid inclusion studies of the vein quartz reveal mean homogenization temperatures of approximately 220 °C, and the co-existence of low-salinity (〈2 wt.% NaCl equivalent) and moderate salinity (2 to 12 wt.% NaCl equivalent) fluid inclusions within the same veins. The moderate salinity fluid inclusions (2–12 wt.% NaCl equivalent) typically have relatively low homogenization temperatures between 150° to 200 °C. The results obtained from stable isotope analysis of  δ18O in quartz vein material showed a gradual decrease in  δ18O signatures with increasing depth. The majority of the samples have calculated fluid source signatures (δ18OH2O) between −8.0 and −10.0‰, but there is a significant change in the composition above 185 m drill depth. The shallower samples in particular show a wide range of oxygen isotope signatures that are associated with the moderate salinity fluid inclusions. We interpret that low-salinity inclusions within the Hokko system represent the composition of the liquid phase of the fluid, before boiling, and that the moderate-salinity inclusions are representative of the residual liquid phase, after extensive non-adiabatic boiling and vapor loss in an open system. This mechanism resulted in the entrapment of fluids with variable salinities at the same time, and in close proximity to each other. This is also reflected in the  δ18OH2O values which become more variable and heavier where the moderate-salinity inclusions occur. Deposition of ore minerals within the Hokko vein system also occurred at this time as a result of boiling and gas loss.
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  • 90
    Digitale Medien
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    Mineralium deposita 33 (1998), S. 591-605 
    ISSN: 1432-1866
    Schlagwort(e): Key words Early Proterozoic ; Birimian ; Shear zone ; Gold ; Quartz veins ; Burkina Faso ; West Africa
    Quelle: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Thema: Geologie und Paläontologie
    Notizen: Abstract The Taparko gold deposit, located in the eastern branch of the Proterozoic Birimian Bouroum-Yalogo greenstone belt (Burkina Faso) consists of a network of quartz veins developed in a N 170° trending shear zone (250 m wide, 4 km long) superimposed on the regional Birimian structural pattern. The quartz vein network is composed of: (a) a dominant array of quartz veins (type 1), parallel to the shear zone and comprising strongly deformed dark quartz exhibiting foliation, layering, ribbon, tension gashes, etc.; (b) oblique and subparallel related veins (type 2) of gray to white weakly deformed quartz crosscutting the dominant quartz veins resulting in breccia structures; and (c) shallow dipping veins (type 3), cross-cutting veins types 1 and 2 and filled by undeformed white buck structure quartz. Cross-cutting relationships and different quartz types in different veins and within individual veins imply a concomitant filling of the veins during the progressive deformation. Initial sinistral transcurrent shearing evolved with time to sinistral reverse shearing. Metallic minerals occur only in type 1 and 2 veins and were deposited in two stages, with native gold being related to second stage sulfides. Gold (and chalcopyrite) precipitated preferentially upon the surfaces of fractured pyrite grains in low-pressure sites (pressure shadow zones) around and/or within the sulfide grains (along subsequently annealed fractures). The formation of the South Taparko deposit can be divided into a succession of events: (a) during the first event, N 170°-directed sinistral transcurrent shearing resulted in a N 20° mylonitic foliation and fractured rock which allowed H2O-, CO2- and SiO2-rich fluids to circulate and deposit quartz with buck texture; (b) during the second event, type 1 quartz was strongly deformed and type 2 veins formed with sigmoidal shapes as viewed on a horizontal plane; and (c) during the third event, the sinistral transcurrent shearing evolved to sinistral reverse shearing and the deformation style evolved correspondingly from ductile to brittle-ductile. During the last phase of deformation gold nucleated and deposited in low-pressure zones.
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  • 91
    ISSN: 1432-1866
    Quelle: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Thema: Geologie und Paläontologie
    Notizen: Abstract Mo-Bi mineralization occurs in subvertical and subhorizontal quartz-muscovite-± K-feldspar veins surrounded by early albitic and later K-feldspathic alteration halos in monzogranite of the Archean Preissac pluton, Abitibi region, Québec, Canada. Molybdenite is intergrown with muscovite in the veins or associated with K-feldspar in the alteration halos. Mineralized veins contain five main types of fluid inclusions: aqueous liquid and liquid-vapor inclusions, aqueous carbonic liquid-liquid-vapor inclusions, carbonic liquid and vapor inclusions, halite-bearing aqueous liquid and liquid-vapor inclusions, trapped mineral-bearing aqueous liquid and liquid-vapor inclusions. The carbonic solid in frozen carbonic and aqueous-carbonic inclusions melts in most cases at −56.7 ± 0.1 °C indicating that the carbonic fluid consists largely of CO2. All aqueous inclusion types and the aqueous phase in carbonic inclusions have low initial melting temperatures (≥70 °C), requiring the presence of salts other than NaCl. Leachate analyses show that the bulk fluid contains variable proportions of Na, K, Ca, Cl, and traces of Mg and Li. The following solids were identified in the fluid inclusions by SEM-EDS analysis: halite, calcite, muscovite, millerite (NiS), barite and antarcticite (CaCl2 · 6H2O). All are interpreted to be trapped phases except halite which is a daughter mineral, and antarcticite which formed during sample preparation (freezing). Aqueous inclusions homogenize to liquid at temperatures between 75 °C and 400 °C; the mode is 375 °C. Aqueous-carbonic inclusions homogenize to liquid or vapor between 210 °C and 400 °C. Halite-bearing aqueous inclusions homogenize by halite dissolution at approximately 170 °C. Aqueous inclusions containing trapped solids exhibit liquid-vapor homogenization at temperatures similar to those of halite-bearing aqueous inclusions. Temperatures of vein formation, based on oxygen isotopic fractionation between quartz and muscovite, range from 342 °C to 584 °C. The corresponding oxygen isotope composition of the aqueous fluid in equilibrium with these minerals ranges from 1.2 to 5.5 per mil with a mean of 3.9 per mil, suggesting that the liquid had a significant meteoric component. Isochores for aqueous fluid inclusions intersect the modal isotopic isotherm of 425 °C at pressures between 590 and 1900 bar. A model is proposed in which molybdenite was deposited owing to decreasing temperature and/or pressure from CO2-bearing, moderate to high salinity fluids of mixed magmatic-meteoric origin that were in equilibrium with K-feldspar and muscovite. These fluids resulted from the degassing of a monzogranitic magma and evolved through interaction with volcanic (komatiitic) and sedimentary country rocks.
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  • 92
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    Mineralium deposita 33 (1998), S. 606-619 
    ISSN: 1432-1866
    Quelle: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Thema: Geologie und Paläontologie
    Notizen: Abstract The Ordovician stratiform iron deposits at Zamora (NW Iberia) are arranged in several levels ranging between 0.2 and 1.5 m in thickness, which are interstratified in the upper member of the “Pielgo” Quartzites Formation (Arenig). The sandy nature, and trace-fossils corresponding to the ichnogenus Cruziana and Daedalus, together with major and trace element contents of this formation suggest an inter and subtidal, shallow marine depositional environment, which on a global scale formed part of a broad shelf situated in the northern margin of the Gondwana continent. The iron mineralization displays a foliated and banded structure due to the alternation of quartzitic, phosphatic (apatite), chamositic, chamositic-biotitic and ferriferous (magnetite and hematite) beds. They have high TiO2, Ta, Sc, V, Nb, Co, Zn and Y contents. The magnetite contains unusually large amounts of TiO2, V, Cr and Ni; there is also a clear depletion in Eu and the (Eu/Sm)CN ratio is 〈1 and the (Sm/Yb)CN ratio is 〉1. The chamosite contains high concentrations of Cr and V. These results suggest that iron was supplied from the weathering of a continental source, in combination with volcanic activity, such as within-basin basic volcanism or the presence of basic volcanic rocks in the exposed land. The physicochemical conditions of iron mineral crystallization calculated from chamosite compositions are the following: log f O2: −38.8 to −30.7, log f S2: −13.2 to −9.5 and T: 200 to 330 °C. These results together with the δ18O value (∼2‰) of the magnetite suggest that chamosite and magnetite were crystallized during later diagenesis and early low-grade metamorphism under redox conditions below the magnetite-hematite buffer.
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  • 93
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    Mineralium deposita 33 (1998), S. 633-638 
    ISSN: 1432-1866
    Quelle: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Thema: Geologie und Paläontologie
    Notizen: Abstract New Pb isotope data from three major mesothermal lode gold deposits (Ballarat West, Tarnagulla, Maldon) in central Victoria support a model whereby the metals derived from a large reservoir with a long residence time in the crust below the Palaeozoic Lachlan Fold Belt. The Pb isotopic ratios of least radiogenic samples from these deposits are in close agreement with published Pb signatures for turbidite-hosted gold deposits, and for Devonian granites, elsewhere in the Lachlan Fold Belt. Despite their spatial distribution and variations in the geological setting, the Pb signatures point to the extraction and transport of metals from a crustal source area by long-lasting, large-scale hydrothermal systems, resulting in the prominent homogenisation of Pb isotopic ratios. The enduring interaction between large hydrothermal systems and an extensive crustal source reservoir were a vital pre-requisite in the formation of the Victorian gold province. In this regard, the prospectivity of Victoria is analogous to world-class ore provinces elsewhere, such as the Archaean Yilgarn Block in Western Australia.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    Standort Signatur Erwartet Verfügbarkeit
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  • 94
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    Springer
    Mineralium deposita 34 (1998), S. 2-2 
    ISSN: 1432-1866
    Quelle: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Thema: Geologie und Paläontologie
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    Standort Signatur Erwartet Verfügbarkeit
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  • 95
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    Springer
    Mineralium deposita 33 (1998), S. 639-643 
    ISSN: 1432-1866
    Quelle: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Thema: Geologie und Paläontologie
    Notizen: Abstract The alkaline intrusive complexes of Tenerife and La Gomera (Canary Archipelago, Spain) are formed by nepheline syenites and alkali gabbroids, and represent part of the oldest magmatic episodes in both islands. This work presents new studies of the petrographic and geochemical features of these rocks, and offers the first data about their respective ore minerals (iron oxides and sulphides). Mineralization is represented in both complexes by iron-rich patches and veins displaying a simple paragenesis of magnetite, ilmenite, pyrite and pyrrhotite, in association with widespread chloritic alteration of the intrusive host rocks. The comparative study of the mineralogical, textural and chemical characteristics of the ore minerals allows a metallogenetic model to be proposed which comprises two stages (magmatic and hydrothermal) in La Gomera and only one (magmatic) in Tenerife. The migration of the sulphide-bearing hydrothermal fluids far from the intrusive complex in Tenerife, and/or possible re-melting process could explain the apparent absence of the later hydrothermal stage in Tenerife.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    Standort Signatur Erwartet Verfügbarkeit
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  • 96
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    Springer
    Mineralium deposita 34 (1998), S. 3-3 
    ISSN: 1432-1866
    Quelle: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Thema: Geologie und Paläontologie
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    Standort Signatur Erwartet Verfügbarkeit
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  • 97
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    Springer
    Mineralium deposita 33 (1998), S. 620-632 
    ISSN: 1432-1866
    Quelle: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Thema: Geologie und Paläontologie
    Notizen: Abstract The formation of Parzán fluorite-lead «extension-type» vein (Spanish Central Pyrenees) is related to the post-Hercynian hydrothermal activity widespread not only in the Pyrenees but in Western Europe as well. The lode was later strongly deformed during the Alpine orogeny with textural modifications and destruction of primary fluid inclusions. In order to determine if geochemical signatures of the vein were disturbed during Alpine deformation, post-ore fluid inclusions and quartz oxygen-isotopes have been addressed. Microthermometry and X-ray microanalysis of frozen inclusions confirm the Na-Ca-Cl character of post-ore fluid circulations and indicate that they were originally derived from a single source: Triassic connate waters. Oxygen isotope data on quartz formed during deformation along with trace element geochemistry suggest that the geochemical signatures of the vein (mainly REE and 87Sr/86Sr) were apparently not reset during deformation. The REE content of fluorites is very high (up to 0.12%); the chondrite normalized REE patterns display a continuous decrease from La to Lu. Sulphur isotope data for the Parzán vein is outside the typical “deep seated” range, suggesting dominantly crustal sources of sulphur for sulphides, while formation waters may be proposed for barite. Parzán fluorites have the most radiogenic Sr values of all the investigated fluorite deposits in Central Pyrenees. They scatter in the range of both the igneous rocks and the Cambrian-Ordovician and Triassic detrital sequences of the Parzán area. If REE contents and 87Sr/86Sr ratios reflect the primary stage of vein filling as suggested by the good correlation between both geochemical signatures, the linear array between 87Sr/86Sr and 1/ΣREE is suggestive of a mixing process. The δ34S, δ18O and 87Sr/86Sr parameters in barite, which postdates the fluorite, also provide strong evidence that barite deposition is a result of fluid mixing. Such an interpretation is in line with present-day ideas for the genesis of many of the F-Ba-Pb-Zn vein deposits in the Hercynian belt of Iberia.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    Standort Signatur Erwartet Verfügbarkeit
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  • 98
    ISSN: 1432-1866
    Quelle: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Thema: Geologie und Paläontologie
    Notizen: Abstract The sulphide deposits of the Iberian Pyrite Belt (IPB) represent an ore province of global importance. Our study presents 113 new sulphur isotope analyses from deposits selected to represent the textural spectrum of ores. Measured 34S values range from −26 to +10‰ mostly for massive and stockwork ores, in agreement with data previously published. In situ laser 34S analyses reveals a close correlation of 34S with texture. Primary diagenetic textures are dominated by relatively low 34S (−8‰ to −2‰), whereas stockwork feeder textures are dominated by higher 34S (∼+3‰ to +5‰). Intermediate textures (mainly coarse textures in stratiform zones) have intermediate 34S, although they are mostly dominated by the high 34S component. Rare barite has a homogeneous 34S around +18‰, which is consistent with direct derivation from Lower Carboniferous seawater sulphate. A dual source of sulphide sulphur in the IPB deposits has been considered. A hydrothermal source, derived from reduction of coeval seawater sulphate in the convective systems, is represented by sulphide in the feeder zones. Here variations in 34S are caused by variations in the extent of the sulphate reduction, which governs the SO4:H2S ratio. The second end-member was derived from the bacterial reduction of coeval seawater sulphate at or near the surface, as reflected in the primary textures. A distinct geographical variation in 34S and texture from SW (more bacteriogenic and primary textures) to NE (more hydrothermal textures and 34S) which reflects a variation in the relative input of each source was likely controlled by local geological environments. Given that the sulphur isotope characteristics of the IPB deposits are unlike most VMS and Kuroko deposits, and noting the dominance of a mixed reduced sedimentary and volcanic environment, we suggest that the IPB could represent an ore style which is intermediate between volcanic and sedimentary hosted massive sulphide types.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    Standort Signatur Erwartet Verfügbarkeit
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  • 99
    Digitale Medien
    Digitale Medien
    Springer
    Mineralium deposita 34 (1998), S. 19-34 
    ISSN: 1432-1866
    Quelle: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Thema: Geologie und Paläontologie
    Notizen: Abstract The Bleikvassli massive sulfide ore deposit is hosted by Proterozoic pelitic, quartzofeldspathic, and amphibolitic rocks of the Uppermost Allochthon of the Scandinavian Caledonides. Staurolite-garnet-biotite and kyanite-staurolite-biotite assemblages indicate that metamorphism reached the kyanite zone of the amphibolite facies. Geothermobarometry was conducted on rocks in and around the deposit using a variety of silicate and sulfide calibrations. Temperature determinations are most reliant on the garnet-biotite exchange reaction, with analyses obtained from 259 garnet rims and adjacent biotite. Results from nine calibrations of the garnet-biotite geothermometer are considered, but compositional limitations of many calibrations involving high Ca and Mn contents in garnet and AlVI and Ti in biotite make many of the coexisting mineral pairs unsuitable. Average temperatures calculated from the two calibrations that most closely address the garnet-biotite compositions observed at Bleikvassli are 584 °C ± 49 °C and 570 °C ± 40 °C. The application of two calibrations of the garnet-staurolite geothermometer on a limited number of samples yields 581 °C ± 2 °C and 589 °C ± 12 °C, assuming a H2O=0.84, based upon calculations of the modal proportions of gaseous species. Pressure determinations are less constrained. Phengite and plagioclase-biotite-garnet-muscovite geobarometers give average pressures of approximately 5.0 kbar and 8.5 ± 1.2 kbar, respectively. Pressures obtained from the sphalerite-hexagonal pyrrhotite-pyrite barometer average 7.7 ± 1.0 kbar. In consideration of these results, the peak metamorphic conditions at the Bleikvassli deposit are estimated to be 580 °C and 8 kbar.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    Standort Signatur Erwartet Verfügbarkeit
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  • 100
    ISSN: 1432-1866
    Quelle: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Thema: Geologie und Paläontologie
    Notizen: Abstract Sample cylinders of two galena ore hand specimens from Braubach, Germany were axially shortened in the strain rate range 5 × 10−5 s−1–5 × 10−7 s−1 at a confining pressure of 200 (300) MPa and at temperatures of 20 °C–600 °C. Neutron diffraction analyses of the crystallographic preferred orientation (texture) were carried out before and after experimental deformation on the same sample cylinder. Up to a deformation temperature of 300 °C and a strain rate of 5 × 10−6 s−1 a more or less complete 〈110〉 fiber texture develops, the strength of the fiber texture only depending on strain and the strength of the original preferred orientation. At slower strain rate and higher temperature, there is a distinct decrease of the fiber texture development. Diffusional mass transfer starts to become a significant deformation mechanism. Deformation at 500 °C changes the original texture only slightly, which indicates a rapid increase of importance of diffusional flow processes. The alteration of the accompanying sulfosalts indicates that the temperature is high enough for the movement of atoms. The microstructure only reveals remarkable deformation structures at higher strains and in areas of locally higher stresses.
    Materialart: Digitale Medien
    Standort Signatur Erwartet Verfügbarkeit
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