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  • Pathogens & Pathogenicity  (51)
  • Natural Disasters  (42)
  • Oxford University Press  (93)
  • Public Library of Science (PLoS)
  • 1
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    Trade Liberalization versus Climate Change Policy for Reducing Greenhouse Gas Emissions in Agriculture: Some Insights from Norway (2015)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2015-08-11
    Description: Using a mathematical programming model of Norwegian agriculture, we explore interconnections between trade liberalization and reductions in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. We show that the Doha Round proposals for a new agreement on agriculture through the World Trade Organization would not generate significant reductions in emissions. Further trade liberalization would reduce emissions by cutting agricultural production but would not change production methods. Imposing a carbon tax would lead both to a reduction in output and the extensification of production. In contrast, if farmers are allowed to claim a credit for carbon sequestration the effect is to intensify agricultural production.
    Keywords: F18 - Trade and Environment, Q17 - Agriculture in International Trade, Q54 - Climate ; Natural Disasters ; Global Warming
    Print ISSN: 2040-5790
    Electronic ISSN: 2040-5804
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition , Economics
    Published by Oxford University Press
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  • 2
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    A human pathogenic bacterial infection model using the two-spotted cricket, Gryllus bimaculatus (2016)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2016-07-15
    Description: Invertebrate animal species that can withstand temperatures as high as 37°C, the human body temperature, are limited. In the present study, we utilized the two-spotted cricket, Gryllus bimaculatus , which lives in tropical and subtropical regions, as an animal model of human pathogenic bacterial infection. Injection of Pseudomonas aeruginosa or Staphylococcus aureus into the hemolymph killed crickets. Injected P. aeruginosa or S. aureus proliferated in the hemolymph until the cricket died. The ability of these pathogenic bacteria to kill the crickets was blocked by the administration of antibiotics. S. aureus gene-knockout mutants of virulence factors, including cvfA, agr and srtA , exhibited decreased killing ability compared with the parent strain. The dose at which 50% of crickets were killed by P. aeruginosa or S. aureus was not decreased at 37°C compared with that at 27°C. Injection of Listeria monocytogenes , which upregulates toxin expression at 37°C, killed crickets, and the dose at which 50% of crickets were killed was decreased at 37°C compared with that at 27°C. These findings suggest that the two-spotted cricket is a useful model animal for evaluating the virulence properties of various human pathogenic bacteria at variable temperature including 37°C.
    Keywords: Pathogens & Pathogenicity
    Print ISSN: 0378-1097
    Electronic ISSN: 1574-6968
    Topics: Biology
    Published by Oxford University Press
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  • 3
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    A conserved OmpA-like protein in Legionella pneumophila required for efficient intracellular replication (2016)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2016-07-31
    Description: The OmpA-like protein domain has been associated with peptidoglycan-binding proteins, and is often found in virulence factors of bacterial pathogens. The intracellular pathogen Legionella pneumophila encodes for six proteins that contain the OmpA-like domain, among them the highly conserved uncharacterized protein we named CmpA. Here we set out to characterize the CmpA protein and determine its contribution to intracellular survival of L. pneumophila . Secondary structure analysis suggests that CmpA is an inner membrane protein with a peptidoglycan-binding domain at the C-teminus. A cmpA mutant was able to replicate normally in broth, but failed to compete with an isogenic wild-type strain in an intracellular growth competition assay. The cmpA mutant also displayed significant intracellular growth defects in both the protozoan host Acanthamoeba castellanii and in primary bone marrow-derived macrophages, where uptake into the cells was also impaired. The cmpA phenotypes were completely restored upon expression of CmpA in trans . The data presented here establish CmpA as a novel virulence factor of L. pneumophila that is required for efficient intracellular replication in both mammalian and protozoan hosts.
    Keywords: Pathogens & Pathogenicity
    Print ISSN: 0378-1097
    Electronic ISSN: 1574-6968
    Topics: Biology
    Published by Oxford University Press
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  • 4
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    A secretome view of colonisation factors in Shiga toxin-encoding Escherichia coli (STEC): from enterohaemorrhagic E. coli (EHEC) to related enteropathotypes (2016)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2016-08-05
    Description: Shiga toxin-encoding Escherichia coli (STEC) regroup strains that carry genes encoding Shiga toxin (Stx). Among intestinal pathogenic E. coli , enterohaemorrhagic E. coli (EHEC) constitute the major subgroup of virulent STEC. EHEC cause serious human disease such as haemorrhagic colitis and haemolytic-uremic syndrome. While EHEC have evolved from enteropathogenic E. coli , hybrids with enteroaggregative E. coli have recently emerged. Of note, some enteroinvasive E. coli also belong to the STEC group. While the LEE (locus of enterocyte effacement) is a key and prominent molecular determinant in the pathogenicity, neither all EHEC nor STEC contain the LEE, suggesting that they possess additional virulence and colonisation factors. Currently, nine protein secretion systems have been described in diderm-lipopolysaccharide bacteria (archetypal Gram-negative) and can be involved in the secretion of extracellular effectors, cell-surface proteins or assembly of cell-surface organelles, such as flagella or pili. In this review, we focus on the secretome of STEC and related enteropathotypes, which are relevant to the colonisation of biotic and abiotic surfaces. Considering the wealth of potential protein trafficking mechanisms, the different combinations of colonisation factors and modulation of their expression is further emphasised with regard to the ecophysiology of STEC.
    Keywords: Pathogens & Pathogenicity
    Print ISSN: 0378-1097
    Electronic ISSN: 1574-6968
    Topics: Biology
    Published by Oxford University Press
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  • 5
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    Temperature Changes, Household Consumption, and Internal Migration: Evidence from Tanzania (2016)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2016-07-09
    Description: Large rural-urban wage gaps observed in many developing countries are suggestive of barriers to migration that keep potential migrants in rural areas. Using long panel data spanning nearly two decades, I study the extent to which migration rates are constrained by liquidity constraints in rural Tanzania. The analysis begins by quantifying the impact of weather variation on household welfare. The results show how household consumption co-moves with temperature, rendering households vulnerable to local weather events. These temperature-induced income shocks are then found to inhibit long-term migration among men, thus preventing them from tapping into the opportunities brought about by geographical mobility.
    Keywords: O12 - Microeconomic Analyses of Economic Development, O15 - Human Resources ; Human Development ; Income Distribution ; Migration, Q54 - Climate ; Natural Disasters ; Global Warming, R23 - Regional Migration ; Regional Labor Markets ; Population
    Print ISSN: 0002-9092
    Electronic ISSN: 1467-8276
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition , Economics
    Published by Oxford University Press
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  • 6
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    In vitro activity of levofloxacin against planktonic and biofilm Stenotrophomonas maltophilia lifestyles under conditions relevant to pulmonary infection in cystic fibrosis, and relationship with SmeDEF multidrug efflux pump expression (2016)
    Oxford University Press
    Details
    Publication Date: 2016-06-23
    Description: The activity of levofloxacin against planktonic and biofilm Stenotrophomonas maltophilia cells and the role played by the multidrug efflux pump SmeDEF were evaluated under conditions relevant to the cystic fibrosis (CF) lung. MIC, MBC and MBEC of levofloxacin were assessed, against five CF strains, under ‘standard’ (CLSI-recommended) and ‘CF-like’ (pH 6.8, 5% CO 2 , in a synthetic CF sputum) conditions. Levofloxacin was tested against biofilms at concentrations (10, 50 and 100 μg mL –1 ) corresponding to achievable serum levels and sputum levels by aerosolisation. smeD expression was evaluated, under both conditions, in planktonic and biofilm cells by RT-PCR. The bactericidal effect of levofloxacin was decreased, in three out of five strains tested, under ‘CF-like’ conditions (MBC: 2–4 vs 8–16 μg mL –1 , under ‘standard’ and ‘CF-like’ conditions, respectively). Biofilm was intrinsically resistant to levofloxacin, regardless of conditions tested (MBECs ≥ 100 μg mL –1 for all strains). Only under ‘CF-like’ conditions, smeD expression increased during planktonic-to-biofilm transition, and in biofilm cells compared to stationary planktonic cells. Our findings confirmed that S. maltophilia biofilm is intrinsically resistant to therapeutic concentrations of levofloxacin. Under conditions relevant to CF, smeD overexpression could contribute to levofloxacin resistance. Further studies are warranted to define the clinical relevance of our findings .
    Keywords: Pathogens & Pathogenicity
    Print ISSN: 0378-1097
    Electronic ISSN: 1574-6968
    Topics: Biology
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  • 7
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    Auranofin and N-heterocyclic carbene gold-analogs are potent inhibitors of the bacteria Helicobacter pylori (2016)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2016-06-23
    Description: Auranofin is an FDA-approved gold-containing compound used for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis. Recent reports of antimicrobial activity against protozoa and bacteria indicate that auranofin targets the reductive enzyme thioredoxin reductase (TrxR). We evaluated auranofin as well as five auranofin analogs containing N- heterocyclic carbenes (instead of the triethylphosphane present in auranofin) and five gold-carbene controls for their ability to inhibit or kill Helicobacter pylori in vitro . Auranofin completely inhibited bacterial growth at 1.2 μM. Purified H. pylori TrxR was inhibited by auranofin in a cell-free assay (IC 50 ~88 nM). The most active gold(I)- N- heterocyclic carbene compounds exhibited MICs comparable to auranofin against H. pylori (2 μM), while also exhibiting lower toxicities for human embryonic kidney cells (HEK-293T cells). Median toxic concentrations (TC 50 ) were 13–20-fold higher compared to auranofin indicating that they were less cytotoxic. The N- heterocyclic carbene analogs maybe well tolerated, but further evaluation is needed in vivo . Finally, auranofin was synergistic with the antibiotic amoxicillin, suggesting that targeting both the reductive enzyme TrxR and cell wall synthesis may be effective against H. pylori infections.
    Keywords: Pathogens & Pathogenicity
    Print ISSN: 0378-1097
    Electronic ISSN: 1574-6968
    Topics: Biology
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  • 8
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    Colony types and virulence traits of Legionella feeleii determined by exopolysaccharide materials (2016)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2016-05-08
    Description: Legionella feeleii is a Gram-negative pathogenic bacterium that causes Pontiac fever and pneumonia in humans. When L. feeleii serogroup 1 (ATCC 35072) was cultured on BCYE agar plates, two types of colonies were observed and exhibited differences in color, opacity and morphology. Since the two colony types are white rugose and brown translucent, they were termed as white rugose L. feeleii (WRLf) and brown translucent L. feeleii (BTLf), respectively. They exhibited different growth capacities in BYE broth in vitro , and it was found that WRLf could transform to BTLf. Under the electron microscope, it was observed that WRLf secreted materials which could be stained with ruthenium red, which was absent in BTLf. When U937 macrophages and HeLa cells were infected with the bacteria, WRLf manifested stronger internalization ability than BTLf. Intracellular growth in murine macrophages and Acanthamoeba cells was affected by the level of initial phagocytosis. WRLf was more resistant to human serum bactericidal action than BTLf. After being inoculated to guinea pigs, both organisms caused fever in the animals. These results suggest that ruthenium red-stained materials secreted in the surroundings may play a crucial role in determining L. feeleii colony morphology and virulence traits.
    Keywords: Pathogens & Pathogenicity
    Print ISSN: 0378-1097
    Electronic ISSN: 1574-6968
    Topics: Biology
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  • 9
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    Resistance-nodulation-division efflux pump acrAB is modulated by florfenicol and contributes to drug resistance in the fish pathogen Piscirickettsia salmonis (2016)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2016-05-12
    Description: Piscirickettsia salmonis is a fastidious intracellular pathogen responsible for high mortality rates in farmed salmonids, with serious economic consequences for the Chilean aquaculture industry. Oxytetracycline and florfenicol are the most frequently used antibiotics against P. salmonis , but routine use could contribute to drug resistance. This study identified differentiated florfenicol susceptibilities in two P. salmonis strains, LF-89 and AUSTRAL-005. The less susceptible isolate, AUSTRAL-005, also showed a high ethidium bromide efflux rate, indicating a higher activity of general efflux pump genes than LF-89. The P. salmonis genome presented resistance nodulation division (RND) family members, a family containing typical multidrug resistance-related efflux pumps in Gram-negative bacteria. Additionally, efflux pump acrAB genes were overexpressed in AUSTRAL-005 following exposure to the tolerated maximal concentration of florfenicol, in contrast to LF-89. These results indicate that tolerated maximum concentrations of florfenicol can modulate RND gene expression and increase efflux pump activity. We propose that the acrAB efflux pump is essential for P. salmonis survival at critical florfenicol concentrations and for the generation of antibiotic-resistant bacterial strains.
    Keywords: Pathogens & Pathogenicity
    Print ISSN: 0378-1097
    Electronic ISSN: 1574-6968
    Topics: Biology
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  • 10
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    The ferrichrome receptor A as a new target for Pseudomonas aeruginosa virulence attenuation (2016)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2016-05-12
    Description: Pseudomonas aeruginosa is an opportunistic pathogen, known to develop robust biofilms. Its biofilm development increases when antibiotics are presented at subminimal inhibitory concentrations (MICs) for reasons that remain unclear. In order to identify genes that affect biofilm development under such a sublethal antibiotic stress condition, we screened a transposon (Tn) mutant library of PAO1, a prototype P. aeruginosa strain. Among ~5000 mutants, a fiuA gene mutant was verified to form very defective biofilms in the presence of sub-MIC carbenicillin. The fiuA gene encodes ferrichrome receptor A, involved in the iron acquisition process. Of note, biofilm formation was not decreased in the pchpvd mutant defective in the production of pyochelin and pyoverdine, two well-characterized P. aeruginosa siderophore molecules. Moreover, fiuA , a non-polar fiuA deletion mutant, produced a significantly decreased level of elastase, a major virulence determinant. Mouse airway infection experiments revealed that the mutant expressed significantly less pathogenicity. Our results suggest that the fiuA gene has pleiotropic functions that affect P. aeruginosa biofilm development and virulence. The targeting of FiuA could enable the attenuation of P. aeruginosa virulence and may be suitable for the development of a drug that specifically controls the virulence of this important pathogen.
    Keywords: Pathogens & Pathogenicity
    Print ISSN: 0378-1097
    Electronic ISSN: 1574-6968
    Topics: Biology
    Published by Oxford University Press
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  • 11
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    Local warming and violent conflict in North and South Sudan (2015)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2015-04-14
    Description: Our article contributes to the emerging micro-level strand of the literature on the link between local variations in weather shocks and conflicts by focusing on a pixel-level analysis for North and South Sudan between 1997 and 2009. Temperature anomalies are found to strongly affect the risk of conflict, whereas the risk is expected to magnify in a range of 24–31% in the future under a median scenario. Our analysis also sheds light on the competition over natural resources, in particular water, as the main driver of such relationship in a region where pastoralism constitutes the dominant livelihood.
    Keywords: D74 - Conflict ; Conflict Resolution ; Alliances, O13 - Agriculture ; Natural Resources ; Energy ; Environment ; Other Primary Products, Q54 - Climate ; Natural Disasters ; Global Warming, R11 - Regional Economic Activity: Growth, Development, and Changes
    Print ISSN: 1468-2702
    Electronic ISSN: 1468-2710
    Topics: Geography , Economics
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  • 12
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    Dealing with Uncertainty in Agent-Based Simulation: Farm-Level Modeling of Adaptation to Climate Change in Southwest Germany (2015)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2015-04-18
    Description: Climate change will most likely confront agricultural producers with natural, economic, and political conditions that have not previously been observed and are largely uncertain. As a consequence, extrapolation from past data reaches its limits, and a process-based analysis of farmer adaptation is required. Simulation of changes in crop yields using crop growth models is a first step in that direction. However, changes in crop yields are only one pathway through which climate change affects agricultural production. A meaningful process-based analysis of farmer adaptation requires a whole-farm analysis at the farm level. We use a highly disaggregated mathematical programming model to analyze farm-level climate change adaptation for a mountainous area in southwest Germany. Regional-level results are obtained by simulating each full-time farm holding in the study area. We address parameter uncertainty and model underdetermination using a cautious calibration approach and a comprehensive uncertainty analysis. We deal with the resulting computational burden using efficient experimental designs and high-performance computing. We show that in our study area, shifted crop management time slots can have potentially significant effects on agricultural supply, incomes, and various policy objectives promoted under German and European environmental policy schemes. The simulated effects are robust against model uncertainty and underline the importance of a comprehensive assessment of climate change impacts beyond merely looking at crop yield changes. Our simulations demonstrate how farm-level models can contribute to a process-based analysis of climate change adaptation if they are embedded into a systematic framework for treating inherent model uncertainty.
    Keywords: C61 - Optimization Techniques ; Programming Models ; Dynamic Analysis, C63 - Computational Techniques, Q12 - Micro Analysis of Farm Firms, Farm Households, and Farm Input Markets, Q54 - Climate ; Natural Disasters ; Global Warming
    Print ISSN: 0002-9092
    Electronic ISSN: 1467-8276
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition , Economics
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  • 13
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    Irrigation Decisions for Major West Coast Crops: Water Scarcity and Climatic Determinants (2015)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2015-12-13
    Description: This article uses the 2007 Farm and Ranch Irrigation Survey database developed by the U.S. Department of Agriculture to assess the impact of water scarcity and climate on irrigation decisions for producers of specialty crops, wheat, and forage crops. We estimate an irrigation management model for major crops in the West Coast (California, Oregon, and Washington), which includes a farm-level equation of irrigated share and crop-specific equations of technology adoption and water application rate (orchard/vineyard, vegetable, wheat, alfalfa, hay, and pasture). We find that economic and physical water scarcity, climate, and extreme weather, such as frost, extreme heat, and drought, significantly impact producers’ irrigation decisions. Producers use sprinkler technologies or additional water applications to mitigate risk of crop damage from extreme weather. Water application rates are least responsive to surface water cost or groundwater well depth for producers of orchard/vineyard. Water supply institutions influence producers’ irrigation decisions. Producers who receive water from federal agencies use higher water application rates and are less likely to adopt water-saving irrigation technologies for some crops. Institutional arrangements, including access to distinct water sources (surface or ground) and whether surface water cost is fee based, also affect the responsiveness of water application rates to changes in surface water cost. The analysis provides valuable information about how producers in irrigated agricultural production systems would respond and adapt to water pricing policies and climate change.
    Keywords: Q12 - Micro Analysis of Farm Firms, Farm Households, and Farm Input Markets, Q15 - Land Ownership and Tenure ; Land Reform ; Land Use ; Irrigation, Q16 - R&D ; Agricultural Technology ; Agricultural Extension Services, Q18 - Agricultural Policy ; Food Policy, Q54 - Climate ; Natural Disasters ; Global Warming
    Print ISSN: 0002-9092
    Electronic ISSN: 1467-8276
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition , Economics
    Published by Oxford University Press
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  • 14
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    ATF3 provides protection from Staphylococcus aureus and Listeria monocytogenes infections (2016)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2016-04-08
    Description: Activating transcription factor 3 (ATF3) is a stress-induced transcriptional regulator in eukaryote. The role of ATF3 in cancer has been well defined, but how ATF3 functions in bacterial infection is not well understood. Pneumococcal infection has been shown to induce ATF3 expression, which subsequently enhances cytokine production and provides protection from lethal Streptococcus pneumoniae infection, but the role of ATF3 in other Gram-positive (G + ) infections remains unclear. Here, we report that infection with other G + bacteria ( Staphylococcus aureus and Listeria monocytogenes ) and with G – bacteria (uropathogenic Escherichia coli ) also significantly induced ATF3 expression. Moreover, the production of cytokines (tumor necrosis factor alpha [TNF]-α, interleukin [IL]-1β, IL-6 and interferon [IFN]-) was enhanced by ATF3 in S. aureus and L. monocytogenes infection, but decreased in uropathogenic E. coli (UPEC) infection. In addition, in S. aureus and L. monocytogenes infections, ATF3 WT mice cleared bacteria more efficiently and had higher survival rates than ATF3 knockout mice. However, in UPEC infection, no significant difference was found in survival rate. Taken together, these data suggest that ATF3 provides protection from S. aureus and L. monocytogenes infections; however, the role of ATF3 in UPEC infection is more complicated and should be further elucidated.
    Keywords: Pathogens & Pathogenicity
    Print ISSN: 0378-1097
    Electronic ISSN: 1574-6968
    Topics: Biology
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  • 15
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    An Introduction to the Green Paradox: The Unintended Consequences of Climate Policies (2015)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2015-07-18
    Description: How important is the Green Paradox? We address this question in three ways. First, we present a simple model explaining how announcing a future climate policy may increase carbon emissions today – the Green Paradox effect. This effect is a result of fossil fuel producers increasing their extraction today as a response to a reduction in future resource rents. Second, we examine the theoretical and empirical literature to assess whether green paradoxes are likely to occur, and if they are, whether they are big enough to be of concern for policy makers. We consider several factors that affect the existence of the green paradox, including long-term extraction costs, short-term extraction capacities, the mix of policy instruments, and potential spatial carbon leakage to countries that have no climate policy. We find that these and other factors can sometimes strengthen, but mostly weaken, the case for concern about the green paradox. Third, we identify the lessons the literature offers for policy makers. We argue that in designing climate policy, policy makers need to consider the supply side of the fossil fuel market.
    Keywords: H23 - Externalities ; Redistributive Effects ; Environmental Taxes and Subsidies, Q31 - Demand and Supply, Q38 - Government Policy, Q54 - Climate ; Natural Disasters ; Global Warming
    Print ISSN: 1750-6816
    Electronic ISSN: 1750-6824
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering , Political Science , Economics
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  • 16
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    Introductory Comment-The Green Paradox: A Supply-Side View of the Climate Problem (2015)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2015-07-18
    Description: Why have policies aimed at reducing the demand for carbon not succeeded in slowing down global carbon extraction and CO 2 emissions, and why have carbon prices failed to increase over the last three decades? This comment argues that this is because of the Green Paradox, that is, the anticipation of sales by resource owners who try to preempt the destruction of their markets by green policies. Reviewing some of the conditions under which strong and weak versions of the Green Paradox may emerge, it is argued that there is little hope that green replacement technologies will impose hard price constraints that would keep long-run extraction within a fixed carbon budget and that, therefore, even strong versions of the paradox cannot easily be avoided.
    Keywords: O13 - Agriculture ; Natural Resources ; Energy ; Environment ; Other Primary Products, Q32 - Exhaustible Resources and Economic Development, Q54 - Climate ; Natural Disasters ; Global Warming, H23 - Externalities ; Redistributive Effects ; Environmental Taxes and Subsidies
    Print ISSN: 1750-6816
    Electronic ISSN: 1750-6824
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering , Political Science , Economics
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  • 17
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    The Green Paradox in Open Economies: Lessons from Static and Dynamic Models (2015)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2015-07-18
    Description: This article examines how, in a world with incomplete coordination among countries, well-intentioned unilateral environmental policies may actually harm the global environment. This outcome is known as the "Green Paradox." The incentives for free-riding and the challenge of achieving an effective international environmental agreement are reviewed. I examine the various channels that lead to carbon leakage in static models of open economies, and report some simulation results. This is complemented by a review of the potential for Green Paradox outcomes in dynamic open-economy models in which forward-looking firms exploit an exhaustible resource. I show that border tax adjustments can lead to Green Paradox outcomes. I also discuss priorities for future research on environmental policies in a trading world that lacks a central enforcement agency.
    Keywords: Q54 - Climate ; Natural Disasters ; Global Warming, Q42 - Alternative Energy Sources
    Print ISSN: 1750-6816
    Electronic ISSN: 1750-6824
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering , Political Science , Economics
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  • 18
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    Reflections-Managing Uncertain Climates: Some Guidance for Policy Makers and Researchers (2015)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2015-07-18
    Description: Climate change—and, by extension, climate policy—is beset with unknowns and unknowables. This "Reflections" article presents an overview of approaches to managing climate uncertainties, in the hopes of providing guidance for current policy decisions as well as future research. We propose the following guidance for policy makers: Treat climate change as a risk management problem; recognize that benefit-cost analysis is only the first of many steps in deciding on optimal climate policy; in assessing abatement choices, use a discount rate that declines over time; recognize the importance of framing, evidence, and connecting the dots; reward modesty. We suggest the following questions for consideration by researchers: Can we improve forecasting? Can we improve the way we address nonlinearities and possible irreversibilities? What other (sub)disciplines merit a closer look? How can we create the right incentives for updating and expanding economic damage functions and climate-economy models? What alternative decision criteria merit further exploration? What does ‘not knowing’ tell us?
    Keywords: Q54 - Climate ; Natural Disasters ; Global Warming, D81 - Criteria for Decision-Making under Risk and Uncertainty
    Print ISSN: 1750-6816
    Electronic ISSN: 1750-6824
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering , Political Science , Economics
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  • 19
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    Molecular dissection of blaKPC-2-bearing plasmids evolving in Klebsiella pneumoniae isolated at one teaching hospital in Shanghai, China (2016)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2016-07-02
    Description: The presence of carbapenemase gene bla KPC-2 in a wide variety of plasmids, especially conjugative plasmids, is key to the rapid, worldwide spread of carbapenemase enzymes. Thirty-eight, non-duplicated, carbapenem-resistant, clinical Klebsiella pneumoniae isolates were collected, all carrying bla KPC-2 -bearing plasmids. Relaxase analysis was used to classify these plasmids; 8 and 30 plasmids belonged to the MOB P3 and MOB F12 subfamilies, respectively. Phylogenetic analysis revealed two genetic subclades in the MOB F12 subfamily and suggested that these subclades might not have originated from the same ancestor. Crossing PCR, used to sequence fully the type IV secretion system (T4SS, essential structures for conjugative plasmids) of the MOB F12 plasmids, found that T4SSs were distinctively different in certain functional genes, e.g. traS and traG. In conclusion, this study delineated the evolution of bla KPC-2 -bearing plasmids at Huashan Hospital, Shanghai, China. The plasmids bearing bla KPC-2 were diverse and the MOB F12 plasmids were dominant in clinical K. pneumoniae isolates.
    Keywords: Pathogens & Pathogenicity
    Print ISSN: 0378-1097
    Electronic ISSN: 1574-6968
    Topics: Biology
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  • 20
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    Drought Index Insurance for the Central Valley Project in California (2016)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2016-08-20
    Description: A multi-year drought has taken a severe toll on the agricultural economy of California’s Central Valley. Index insurance is an instrument with the potential to protect water users from economic losses due to periodic water shortages. An index insurance product based on the Sacramento Index and adapted to the Central Valley Project water supply is proposed. To address the potential for intertemporal adverse selection, three product designs are suggested: (1) "early bird" insurance; (2) variable premium insurance; and (3) variable deductible insurance. The performance of the designs are assessed using loss functions from the Westlands Water District in the San Joaquin Valley.
    Keywords: Q14 - Agricultural Finance, Q15 - Land Ownership and Tenure ; Land Reform ; Land Use ; Irrigation, Q54 - Climate ; Natural Disasters ; Global Warming
    Print ISSN: 2040-5790
    Electronic ISSN: 2040-5804
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition , Economics
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    Virulence determinants in enteroaggregative Escherichia coli from North India and their interaction in in vitro organ culture system (2016)
    Oxford University Press
    Details
    Publication Date: 2016-08-28
    Description: Enteroaggregative Escherichia coli (EAEC) is an important diarrhoeal pathogen causing diseases in multiple epidemiological and clinical settings. In developing countries like India, diarrhoeal diseases are one of the major killers among paediatric population and oddly, few studies are available from Indian paediatric population on the variability of EAEC virulence genes. In this study, we examined the distribution of plasmid and chromosomal-encoded virulence determinants in EAEC isolates, and analysed cytokines response generated against EAEC with specific aggregative adherence fimbriae (AAF) type in duodenal biopsies using in vitro organ culture (IVOC) mimicking in vivo conditions. Different virulence marker combinations among strains were reflected as a function of specific adhesins signifying EAEC heterogeneity. fis gene emerged as an important genetic marker apart from aggA and aap . Further, EAEC infection in IVOC showed upregulation of IL-8, IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α and TLR-5 expression. EAEC with AAFII induced significant TLR-5 and IL-8 response, conceivably owing to more pathogenicity markers. This study sheds light on the pattern of EAEC pathotypes prevalent in North Indian paediatric population and highlights the presence of unique virulence combinations in pathogenic strains. Thus, evident diversity in EAEC virulence and multifaceted bacteria-host crosstalk can provide useful insights for the strategic management of diarrhoeal diseases in India, where diarrhoeal outbreaks are more frequent.
    Keywords: Pathogens & Pathogenicity
    Print ISSN: 0378-1097
    Electronic ISSN: 1574-6968
    Topics: Biology
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    Transfer of mupirocin resistance from Staphylococcus haemolyticus clinical strains to Staphylococcus aureus through conjugative and mobilizable plasmids (2016)
    Oxford University Press
    Details
    Publication Date: 2016-06-17
    Description: Coagulase-negative staphylococci are thought to act as reservoirs of antibiotic resistance genes that can be transferred to Staphylococcus aureus , thus hindering the combat of this bacterium. In this work, we analyzed the presence of plasmids conferring resistance to the antibiotic mupirocin—widely used to treat and prevent S. aureus infections in hospital environments—in nosocomial S. haemolyticus strains. About 12% of the 75 strains tested were resistant to mupirocin, and this phenotype was correlated with the presence of plasmids. These plasmids were shown to be diverse, being either conjugative or mobilizable, and capable of transferring mupirocin resistance to S. aureus . Our findings reinforce that S. haemolyticus , historically and mistakenly considered as a less important pathogen, is a reservoir of resistance genes which can be transferred to other bacteria, such as S. aureus , emphasizing the necessity of more effective strategies to detect and combat this emergent opportunistic pathogen.
    Keywords: Pathogens & Pathogenicity
    Print ISSN: 0378-1097
    Electronic ISSN: 1574-6968
    Topics: Biology
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    A new biotype of Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. lycopersici race 2 emerged by a transposon-driven mutation of avirulence gene AVR1 (2016)
    Oxford University Press
    Details
    Publication Date: 2016-06-17
    Description: Emergence of races in Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. lycopersici ( Fol ) is caused by loss or mutation of at least one avirulence ( AVR ) gene. The product of AVR1 is a small protein (Avr1) secreted by Fol in tomato xylem sap during infection. This protein triggers Fol race 1 specific resistance (I) in tomato, indicating that AVR1 is an AVR gene. Deletion of AVR1 in race 1 resulted in the emergence of race 2, and an additional mutation in AVR2 generated race 3. Previously, we reported a new biotype of race 3, KoChi-1, in which AVR1 was truncated by a transposon Hormin , which suggested a new route to evolution of races in Fol . However, to date no race 2 isolate carrying Hormin -truncated AVR1 has been reported. In this report, we describe such isolates, represented by Chiba-5, in which Hormin insertion occurred in AVR1 at a position different from that in KoChi-1. AVR1 truncation in both isolates resulted in production of defective Avr1 proteins. Chiba-5 and KoChi-1 belong to different phylogenetic clades, A1 and A2, respectively, suggesting that insertion of Hormin in AVR1 in Chiba-5 and KoChi-1 occurred as independent evolutionary events.
    Keywords: Pathogens & Pathogenicity
    Print ISSN: 0378-1097
    Electronic ISSN: 1574-6968
    Topics: Biology
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    Characterization of a highly toxic strain of Bacillus thuringiensis serovar kurstaki very similar to the HD-73 strain (2016)
    Oxford University Press
    Details
    Publication Date: 2016-09-02
    Description: The LBIT-1200 strain of Bacillus thuringiensis was recently isolated from soil, and showed a 6.4 and 9.5 increase in toxicity, against Manduca sexta and Trichoplusia ni , respectively, compared to HD-73. However, LBIT-1200 was still highly similar to HD-73, including the production of bipyramidal crystals containing only one protein of ~130 000 kDa, its flagellin gene sequence related to the kurstaki serotype, plasmid and RepPCR patterns similar to HD-73, no production of β-exotoxin and no presence of VIP genes. Sequencing of its cry gene showed the presence of a cry1Ac -type gene with four amino acid differences, including two amino acid replacements in domain III, compared to Cry1Ac1, which may explain its higher toxicity. In conclusion, the LBIT-1200 strain is a variant of the HD-73 strain but shows a much higher toxicity, which makes this new strain an important candidate to be developed as a bioinsecticide, once it passes other tests, throughout its biotechnological development.
    Keywords: Pathogens & Pathogenicity
    Print ISSN: 0378-1097
    Electronic ISSN: 1574-6968
    Topics: Biology
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    Evaluation of gastrointestinal leakage using serum (1-〉3)-{beta}-D-glucan in a Clostridium difficile murine model (2016)
    Oxford University Press
    Details
    Publication Date: 2016-09-14
    Description: Gastrointestinal (GI) leakage in Clostridium difficile -associated diarrhea (CDAD) is well known but is not routinely assessed in clinical practice. Serum (1-〉3)-β-D-glucan (BG), a fungal cell wall component used as a biomarker for invasive fungal disease, was tested in a CDAD mouse model with and without probiotics. Higher serum fluorescein isothiocyanate-dextran (FITC-dextran) and spontaneous gram-negative bacteremia, GI leakage indicators, were frequently found in CDAD mice, which died compared with those which survived. BG, serum macrophage inflammatory protein-2 and FITC-dextran but not quantitative blood bacterial count differentiated the clinical severity. Interestingly, a specific dose of Lactobacillus rhamnosus L34 attenuated CDAD and decreased serum BG and FITC-dextran, but not other parameters. BG also showed a higher area under the receiver operating characteristic curve for 7-day mortality than FITC-dextran. Fifty-five percent of CDAD mice with BG ≥ 60 pg/ml (the human negative cut-off value for invasive fungal disease) at 1 day after C. difficile gavage died within 7 days. In conclusion, s erum BG was elevated in mice with severe CDAD, an established model of GI leakage with a strong association with mortality rate. BG monitoring in patients with CDAD is of interest as both a potential prognostic tool and a therapeutic efficacy indicator.
    Keywords: Pathogens & Pathogenicity
    Print ISSN: 0378-1097
    Electronic ISSN: 1574-6968
    Topics: Biology
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    The role of NOD1 and NOD2 in host defense against chlamydial infection (2016)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2016-08-28
    Description: Chlamydial species are common intracellular parasites that cause various diseases, mainly characterized by persistent infection, which lead to inflammatory responses modulated by pattern recognition receptors (PRRs). The best understood PRRs are the extracellular Toll-like receptors, but recent significant advances have focused on two important proteins, NOD1 and NOD2, which are members of the intracellular nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain receptor family and are capable of triggering the host innate immune signaling pathways. This results in the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines, which is vital for an adequate host defense against intracellular chlamydial infection. NOD1/2 ligands are known to derive from peptidoglycan, and the latest research has resolved the paradox of whether chlamydial species possess this bacterial cell wall component; this finding is likely to promote in-depth investigations into the interaction between the NOD proteins and chlamydial pathogens. In this review, we summarize the basic characteristics and signal transduction functions of NOD1 and NOD2 and highlight the new research on the roles of NOD1 and NOD2 in the host defense against chlamydial infection.
    Keywords: Pathogens & Pathogenicity
    Print ISSN: 0378-1097
    Electronic ISSN: 1574-6968
    Topics: Biology
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    Aeromonas salmonicida subsp. salmonicida strains isolated from Chinese freshwater fish contain a novel genomic island and possible regional-specific mobile genetic elements profiles (2016)
    Oxford University Press
    Details
    Publication Date: 2016-08-28
    Description: Two strains of Aeromonas salmonicida , YK and BG, were isolated from largemouth bronze gudgeon and northern whitefish in China, and identified as A. salmonicida subsp. salmonicida based on phylogenetic analysis of vapA and 16S rRNA gene sequences. YK and BG originated from freshwater fish, one of which belonged to the cyprinid family, and the strains showed a difference in virulence. Subsequently, we performed whole genome sequencing of the strains, and comparison of their genomic sequences to the genome of the A449 reference strain revealed various genomic rearrangements, including a new variant of the genomic island AsaGEI in BG, designated as AsaGEI2c . This is the first report on a GEI of A. salmonicida strain from China. Furthermore, both YK and BG strains contained a Tn7 transposon inserted at the same position in the chromosome. Finally, IS-dependent rearrangements on pAsa5 are deemed likely to have occurred, with omission of the resD gene in both strains as well as omission of genes related to the IncF conjugal transfer system in the YK isolate. This study demonstrates that A. salmonicida subsp. salmonicida can infect non-salmonids (cyprinids) in addition to salmonids, and that AsaGEI2c might be useful as a geographical indicator of Chinese A. salmonicida subsp. salmonicida isolates.
    Keywords: Pathogens & Pathogenicity
    Print ISSN: 0378-1097
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    Topics: Biology
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    Burkholderia pseudomallei rpoS mediates iNOS suppression in human hepatocyte (HC04) cells (2016)
    Oxford University Press
    Details
    Publication Date: 2016-07-09
    Description: Burkholderia pseudomallei is an intracellular Gram-negative bacterial pathogen and the causative agent of melioidosis, a widespread disease in Southeast Asia. Reactive nitrogen, in an intermediate form of nitric oxide (NO), is one of the first lines of defense used by host cells to eliminate intracellular pathogens, through the stimulation of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS). Studies in phagocytotic cells have shown that the iNOS response is muted in B. pseudomallei infection, and implicated the rpoS sigma factor as a key regulatory factor mediating suppression. The liver is a main visceral organ affected by B. pseudomallei , and there is little knowledge about the interaction of liver cells and B. pseudomallei . This study investigated the induction of iNOS, as well as autophagic flux and light-chain 3 (LC3) localization in human liver (HC04) cells in response to infection with B. pseudomallei and its rpoS deficient mutant. Results showed that the rpoS mutant was unable to suppress iNOS induction and that the mutant showed less induction of autophagy and lower co-localization with LC3, and this was coupled with a lower intracellular growth rate. Combining these results suggest that B. pseudomallei rpoS is an important factor in establishing infection in liver cells.
    Keywords: Pathogens & Pathogenicity
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    Topics: Biology
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    Quality Matters More Than Quantity: Asymmetric Temperature Effects on Crop Yield and Quality Grade (2016)
    Oxford University Press
    Details
    Publication Date: 2016-07-09
    Description: Climate change affects agriculture by altering not only output quantity, but also crop quality. We quantify the economic impacts of climate change on agriculture through changes in both quantity and quality, where quality is measured by crop grades. Our model controls for methodological issues regarding sample selection, aggregation, phenology, and nonlinearity. The empirical application to Japanese rice production indicates that temperature effects are asymmetric: quantity is especially vulnerable to cold, whereas quality is vulnerable to extremely high temperature. Using these results, we simulate the effect of global warming, and we find that warming (a 3 °C increase) increases farm revenues by improving yield but decreases revenues as a result of deteriorating quality. The net effect is negative, suggesting that quality matters more than quantity. The negative effect, however, can be mitigated by shifting cultivation periods and/or regions. Overall, our results suggest that the estimated impacts of climate change and adaptation strategies could be severely misleading unless quality is considered.
    Keywords: L15 - Information and Product Quality ; Standardization and Compatibility, Q10 - General, Q54 - Climate ; Natural Disasters ; Global Warming
    Print ISSN: 0002-9092
    Electronic ISSN: 1467-8276
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition , Economics
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    The Effect of Weather-Induced Internal Migration on Local Labor Markets. Evidence from Uganda (2015)
    Oxford University Press
    Details
    Publication Date: 2015-05-21
    Description: Relying on census data collected in 2002 and historical weather data for Uganda, we estimate the impact of weather-induced internal migration on the probability for non-migrants living in the destination regions to be employed. Consistent with the prediction of a simple theoretical model, our results reveal a larger negative impact than the one documented for developed countries. They further show that this negative impact is significantly stronger in Ugandan regions with lower road density and therefore less conducive to capital mobility: a 10 percentage points increase in the net in-migration rate in these areas decreases the probability of being employed of non-migrants by more than 10 percentage points.
    Keywords: E24 - Employment ; Unemployment ; Wages ; Intergenerational Income Distribution, J21 - Labor Force and Employment, Size, and Structure, J61 - Geographic Labor Mobility ; Immigrant Workers, Q54 - Climate ; Natural Disasters ; Global Warming, R23 - Regional Migration ; Regional Labor Markets ; Population
    Print ISSN: 0258-6770
    Electronic ISSN: 1564-698X
    Topics: Economics
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    Optimal Directions for Directional Distance Functions: An Exploration of Potential Reductions of Greenhouse Gases (2015)
    Oxford University Press
    Details
    Publication Date: 2015-04-18
    Description: This article explores the reduction potential of greenhouse gases for major pollution-emitting countries of the world using nonparametric productivity measurement methods and directional distance functions. In contrast to the existing literature, we apply optimization methods to endogenously determine optimal directions for the efficiency analysis. These directions represent the compromise of output enhancement and emissions reduction. The results show that for reasonable directions the adoption of best practices would lead to sizable emission reductions in a range of approximately 20% compared with current levels.
    Keywords: C14 - Semiparametric and Nonparametric Methods, D24 - Production ; Cost ; Capital and Total Factor Productivity ; Capacity, Q54 - Climate ; Natural Disasters ; Global Warming
    Print ISSN: 0002-9092
    Electronic ISSN: 1467-8276
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition , Economics
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    Regulation of Natural Gas in the United States, Canada, and Europe: Prospects for a Low Carbon Fuel (2015)
    Oxford University Press
    Details
    Publication Date: 2015-01-29
    Description: The United States and Canada have seen a competitive and technological revolution in unconventional natural gas production in the 21 st Century—dramatically lowering the price of gas and displacing high-carbon coal with low-carbon gas for power generation. This gas revolution came from an earlier revolution in the regulation of gas pipelines, which ended the obstruction of gas markets by pipeline interests. Neither revolution has spread to Europe, where increasingly protectionist EU legislation has effectively blocked competitive pipeline entry and related gas markets. As a result, unconventional gas is untapped, coal displaces gas for power generation, and oil-linked gas prices have cost EU consumers a staggering $425 billion more than their US counterparts have paid since 2009 for about the same quantity of gas. Europe faces a serious institutional challenge to adopting the kind of pipeline regulation that facilitates the competitive flow of natural gas supplies and the accompanying lower carbon emissions. ( JEL : D23, K23, L14, L51, L95, N70, Q54)
    Keywords: D23 - Organizational Behavior ; Transaction Costs ; Property Rights, K23 - Regulated Industries and Administrative Law, L14 - Transactional Relationships ; Contracts and Reputation ; Networks, L51 - Economics of Regulation, L95 - Gas Utilities ; Pipelines ; Water Utilities, N70 - General, International, or Comparative, Q54 - Climate ; Natural Disasters ; Global Warming
    Print ISSN: 1750-6816
    Electronic ISSN: 1750-6824
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering , Political Science , Economics
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    A Global Perspective on the Future of Natural Gas: Resources, Trade, and Climate Constraints (2015)
    Oxford University Press
    Details
    Publication Date: 2015-01-29
    Description: Natural gas plays an important role in the global energy system as an input to power generation, heating, and industry. This article identifies key drivers and uncertainties for natural gas markets in the coming decades. These include the availability of natural gas from conventional and unconventional sources, the role of international trade, and the impact of climate policies. We build on model-based research as well as an up-to-date survey of natural gas resource availability. We find that natural gas is an abundant fossil fuel and that the Asia-Pacific region will be most important in future global natural gas markets, especially under stringent international climate change mitigation. This means that an increasingly large share of future natural gas trade flows and infrastructure expansions will be directed to the Asia-Pacific region and that the role of liquefied natural gas will continue to increase globally. ( JEL : C61, L71, Q33, Q37, Q54)
    Keywords: C61 - Optimization Techniques ; Programming Models ; Dynamic Analysis, L71 - Mining, Extraction, and Refining: Hydrocarbon Fuels, Q33 - Resource Booms, Q54 - Climate ; Natural Disasters ; Global Warming
    Print ISSN: 1750-6816
    Electronic ISSN: 1750-6824
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering , Political Science , Economics
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    Fiscal Responses after Catastrophes and the Enabling Role of Financial Development (2015)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2015-01-29
    Description: Natural disasters may constitute a major shock to public finances and debt sustainability because of their impact on output and the need for government response with reconstruction and relief expenses. The question arises of whether governments can use financial development policy as the means to mitigate or insure against this negative fiscal impact. This paper uses a panel vector autoregressive model, estimated on annual data for high- and middle-income countries over 1975–2008, to study the role of debt market development and insurance penetration in enabling fiscal response after catastrophes. The authors find that countries with higher debt market development suffer smaller real consequences from disasters but that their deficits expand further following the mitigating fiscal response. Disasters in countries with high insurance penetration also experience smaller real consequences of disasters but without the need for further deficit expansions. From an ex-post perspective, the availability of insurance could offer the best mitigation approach against the real and fiscal consequences of disasters.
    Keywords: E32 - Business Fluctuations ; Cycles, H50 - General, H60 - General, Q54 - Climate ; Natural Disasters ; Global Warming
    Print ISSN: 0258-6770
    Electronic ISSN: 1564-698X
    Topics: Economics
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    Distributional Implications of Climate Change in Rural India: A General Equilibrium Approach (2015)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2015-07-10
    Description: We develop a general equilibrium framework, based on a specific-factors trade model, to quantify the medium-term household welfare impacts of global warming in rural India. Using an hedonic approach grounded in the theory combined with detailed microdata, we estimate that three decades of warming will reduce agricultural productivity in the range of 7%–13%, with the arid northwest of India especially hard hit. Our analysis shows that the proportional welfare cost of climate change is likely to be both modest and evenly distributed across percentiles of the per capita income distribution, but this latter conclusion emerges only when the flexibility of rural wages is taken into account.
    Keywords: Q17 - Agriculture in International Trade, Q54 - Climate ; Natural Disasters ; Global Warming
    Print ISSN: 0002-9092
    Electronic ISSN: 1467-8276
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition , Economics
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    Alternative Metrics for Comparing Domestic Climate Change Mitigation Efforts and the Emerging International Climate Policy Architecture (2016)
    Oxford University Press
    Details
    Publication Date: 2016-02-03
    Description: The availability of practical mechanisms for comparing domestic efforts aimed at mitigating global climate change is important for the stability, equity, and efficiency of international climate agreements. We examine a variety of metrics that could be used to compare countries’ climate change mitigation efforts and illustrate their potential application to large developed and developing countries. Because there is no single, comprehensive, measurable metric that could be applied to all countries, we suggest using a set of indicators to characterize and compare mitigation effort, akin to using a set of economic statistics to indicate the health of the macroeconomy. Given the iterative pledge-and-review approach that is emerging in the current climate change negotiations, participation, commitment, and compliance could be enhanced if this set of indicators is able to show that all parties are doing their "fair share," both prospectively and retrospectively. The latter, in particular, highlights the need for a well-functioning policy surveillance regime. ( JEL : Q54, Q58, F55)
    Keywords: Q54 - Climate ; Natural Disasters ; Global Warming, Q58 - Government Policy, F55 - International Institutional Arrangements
    Print ISSN: 1750-6816
    Electronic ISSN: 1750-6824
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering , Political Science , Economics
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    The Economics of Wine, Weather, and Climate Change (2016)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2016-02-03
    Description: In this article, we provide an overview of the extensive literature on the impact of weather and climate on grapes and wine, with the goal of identifying how climate change is likely to affect their production. We first discuss the physical impact of weather on vine phenology (i.e., the timing of biological events such as bud break or flowering), berry composition, and yields. Then we examine the economic literature that measures the effects of temperature on wine quality, prices, costs, and profits and, based on this review, infer how climate change will affect these variables. We also describe what has been learned thus far about possible adaptation strategies for grape growers that would allow them to mitigate the economic effects of climate change. We conclude that climate change is likely to produce both winners and losers, with the winners being those located closer to the North and South Poles. There are also likely to be some substantial short-run costs as growers adapt to climate change. Nevertheless, wine making has survived through thousands of years of recorded history, a history that has included significant climate changes. ( JEL : Q13, Q18, Q54)
    Keywords: Q13 - Agricultural Markets and Marketing ; Cooperatives ; Agribusiness, Q18 - Agricultural Policy ; Food Policy, Q54 - Climate ; Natural Disasters ; Global Warming
    Print ISSN: 1750-6816
    Electronic ISSN: 1750-6824
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering , Political Science , Economics
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    The Impact of the European Union Emissions Trading Scheme on Regulated Firms: What Is the Evidence after Ten Years? (2016)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2016-02-03
    Description: This article reviews the recent literature on ex post evaluation of the impacts of the European Union (EU) Emissions Trading Scheme (ETS) on regulated firms in the industrial and power sectors. We summarize the findings from original research papers concerning three broadly defined impacts: carbon dioxide emissions, economic performance and competitiveness, and innovation. We conclude by highlighting gaps in the current literature and suggesting priorities for future research on this landmark policy. ( JEL : Q52, Q54, Q58)
    Keywords: Q52 - Pollution Control Costs ; Distributional Effects ; Employment Effects, Q54 - Climate ; Natural Disasters ; Global Warming, Q58 - Government Policy
    Print ISSN: 1750-6816
    Electronic ISSN: 1750-6824
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering , Political Science , Economics
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    The European Union Emissions Trading System: Ten Years and Counting (2016)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2016-02-03
    Description: This article provides an introduction to the European Union (EU) Emissions Trading System (ETS). First we describe the legislative development of the EU ETS, its evolution from free allocation to auctioning and centralized allocation rules, its relationship to the Kyoto Protocol and other trading systems, and its relationship to other EU climate and energy policies. This is followed by an assessment of the performance of the EU ETS, which focuses in particular on emissions, allowance prices, and the use of offsets. We conclude with a discussion of the current debate about the future of the EU ETS and proposals for changes to both the EU ETS and the climate policy environment in which it operates. ( JEL : Q54, Q58)
    Keywords: Q54 - Climate ; Natural Disasters ; Global Warming, Q58 - Government Policy
    Print ISSN: 1750-6816
    Electronic ISSN: 1750-6824
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering , Political Science , Economics
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    The Climate Change Adaptation Literature (2016)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2016-02-03
    Description: The December 2015 Conference of the Parties (COP) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change meetings in Paris are likely to yield a global agreement that will slow the world’s growth of greenhouse gas emissions, but this agreement is unlikely to guarantee a decline in global emissions in the near future. Given this reality, climate change adaptation is an increasingly important topic for discussion and study. Although much research has focused on the macroeconomic relationship between economic growth and temperature at the national and/or annual level, microeconomic analysis also offers valuable insights. This Reflections discusses recent work on household and firm responses to three climate change challenges: increased summer heat, higher food prices, and increased natural disaster risk. ( JEL : Q54)
    Keywords: Q54 - Climate ; Natural Disasters ; Global Warming
    Print ISSN: 1750-6816
    Electronic ISSN: 1750-6824
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering , Political Science , Economics
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    The role of temperate bacteriophages in bacterial infection (2016)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2016-02-20
    Description: Bacteriophages are viruses that infect bacteria. There are an estimated 10 31 phage on the planet, making them the most abundant form of life. We are rapidly approaching the centenary of their identification, and yet still have only a limited understanding of their role in the ecology and evolution of bacterial populations. Temperate prophage carriage is often associated with increased bacterial virulence. The rise in use of technologies, such as genome sequencing and transcriptomics, has highlighted more subtle ways in which prophages contribute to pathogenicity. This review discusses the current knowledge of the multifaceted effects that phage can exert on their hosts and how this may contribute to bacterial adaptation during infection.
    Keywords: Pathogens & Pathogenicity
    Print ISSN: 0378-1097
    Electronic ISSN: 1574-6968
    Topics: Biology
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    Pleiotropic consequences of gene knockouts in the phthiocerol dimycocerosate and phenolic glycolipid biosynthetic gene cluster of the opportunistic human pathogen Mycobacterium marinum (2016)
    Oxford University Press
    Details
    Publication Date: 2016-02-20
    Description: Phthiocerol dimycocerosates (PDIMs) and phenolic glycolipids (PGLs) contribute to the pathogenicity of several mycobacteria. Biosynthesis of these virulence factors requires polyketide synthases and other enzymes that represent potential targets for the development of adjuvant antivirulence drugs. We used six isogenic Mycobacterium marinum mutants, each with a different gene knockout in the PDIM/PGL biosynthetic pathway, to probe the pleiotropy of mutations leading to PDIM – PGL – , PDIM + PGL – or PDIM – PGL + phenotypes. We evaluated the M. marinum mutants for changes in antibiotic susceptibility, cell envelope permeability, biofilm formation, surface properties, sliding motility and virulence in an amoeba model. The analysis also permitted us to begin exploring the hypothesis that different gene knockouts rendering the same PDIM and/or PGL deficiency phenotypes lead to M. marinum mutants with equivalent pleiotropic profiles. Overall, the results of our study revealed a complex picture of pleiotropic patterns emerging from different gene knockouts, uncovered unexpected phenotypic inequalities between mutants, and provided new insight into the phenotypic consequences of gene knockouts in the PDIM/PGL biosynthetic pathway.
    Keywords: Pathogens & Pathogenicity
    Print ISSN: 0378-1097
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    Topics: Biology
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    Isolation and identification of nematode-antagonistic compounds from the fungus Aspergillus candidus (2016)
    Oxford University Press
    Details
    Publication Date: 2016-02-20
    Description: Culture medium from an isolate of the fungus Aspergillus candidus was extracted, fractionated and examined to discover compounds antagonistic to plant-parasitic nematodes that are important pathogens of agricultural crops. Column, thin layer and preparative chromatographies and spectral and elemental analyses, were used to isolate and identify two major constituents of an active fraction (Fraction F) obtained from the medium. Compound 1 was identified as 2-hydroxypropane-1, 2, 3-tricarboxylic acid (citric acid). Compound 2 was identified as 3-hydroxy-5-methoxy-3-(methoxycarbonyl)-5-oxopentanoic acid, an isomer of 1, 2-dimethyl citrate. Compound 1 and a citric acid standard, each tested at 50 mg mL –1 in water, decreased hatch from eggs of the plant-parasitic nematode Meloidogyne incognita by more than 94%, and completely immobilized second-stage juveniles after 4–6 days exposure. Fraction F and Compounds 1 and 2 decreased the mobility of adults of the plant-parasitic nematode Ditylenchus destructor in vitro . Fraction F (25 mg mL –1 ) inhibited mobility 〉99% at 72 hrs. Compounds 1 and 2 (50 mg mL –1 ) each inhibited mobility more than 25% at 24 hr and more than 50% at 72 hr. This is the first assignment of nematode-antagonistic properties to specifically identified A. candidus metabolites.
    Keywords: Pathogens & Pathogenicity
    Print ISSN: 0378-1097
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    Endogenous farm-type selection, endogenous irrigation, and spatial effects in Ricardian models of climate change (2016)
    Oxford University Press
    Details
    Publication Date: 2016-02-20
    Description: In the estimation of Ricardian models the endogeneity of adaptation measures is typically ignored. In this article we propose a new estimation strategy that explicitly recognises the endogeneity of the farm type and irrigation to climate. Based on the latest census data on over 270,000 farms in Germany, we estimate a cross-sectional, spatial-IV model that decomposes the effects of climate on farm profitability into direct (unmediated) and indirect (mediated by the variables that reflect adaptation). Our results show that neglecting the endogenous nature of adaptation measures may substantially bias the magnitude of the total effect of climate on farm profitability.
    Keywords: C21 - Cross-Sectional Models ; Spatial Models ; Treatment Effect Models, C25 - Discrete Regression and Qualitative Choice Models, C36- Instrumental Variables (IV) Estimation, Q18 - Agricultural Policy ; Food Policy, Q51 - Valuation of Environmental Effects, Q54 - Climate ; Natural Disasters ; Global Warming
    Print ISSN: 0165-1587
    Electronic ISSN: 1464-3618
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition , Economics
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    Antibiotic resistance: the emergence of plasmid-mediated colistin resistance enhances the need of a proactive one-health approach (2016)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2016-02-27
    Keywords: Pathogens & Pathogenicity
    Print ISSN: 0378-1097
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    Topics: Biology
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    T7-RNA polymerase dependent RNAi system in Aspergillus fumigatus: a proof of concept study (2016)
    Oxford University Press
    Details
    Publication Date: 2016-02-25
    Description: An RNAi system based on T7 RNA polymerase (TRNAP) was designed and examined in Aspergillus fumigatus . This system consists of two elements; an inducible T7RNAP expressing cassette and an AMA1-based episomal RNAi plasmid. These constructs were transformed into the A. fumigatus protoplasts and the efficiency of this system was tested in downregulation of alb1 gene. Upon the induction of T7RNAP expression, the recombinant T7RNAP was able to recognize T7 promoters, which were located on the episomal plasmid and in opposite direction. As a result, the bidirectional transcription of alb1 fragment led to the silencing of the target gene. However, our results demonstrated that this silencing system is unstable and may not be applicable in preparation of RNAi libraries.
    Keywords: Pathogens & Pathogenicity
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    Responsiveness of Crop Yield and Acreage to Prices and Climate (2015)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2015-12-13
    Description: We investigate the effect of crop price and climate variables on rainfed corn and soybean yields and acreage in the United States using a large panel dataset for the 1977–2007 period. Instrumental variables are used to control for endogeneity of prices in yield and acreage regressions, while allowing for spatially auto-correlated errors. We find that an increase in corn price has a statistically significant positive impact on corn yield, but the effect of soybean price on soybean yields is not statistically significant. The estimated price elasticities of corn yield and acreage are 0.23 and 0.45, respectively. Of the increase in corn supply caused by an increase in corn price, we find that 33.8% is due to price-induced yield enhancement and 66.2% is due to price-induced acreage expansion. We also find that the impact of climate change on corn production ranges from $-$ 7% to $-$ 41% and on soybean ranges from $-$ 8% to $-$ 45%, depending on the climate change scenarios, time horizon, and global climate models used to predict climate change. We show that the aggregate net impact of omitting price variables is an overestimation of the effect of climate change on corn yield by up to 9% and on soybean yield by up to 15%.
    Keywords: Q11 - Aggregate Supply and Demand Analysis ; Prices, Q15 - Land Ownership and Tenure ; Land Reform ; Land Use ; Irrigation, Q54 - Climate ; Natural Disasters ; Global Warming
    Print ISSN: 0002-9092
    Electronic ISSN: 1467-8276
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition , Economics
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    Looking into the future of agriculture in a changing climate (2011)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2011-11-24
    Description: Looking into the future of agriculture raises three challenging questions: How can agriculture deal with an uncertain future? How do local vulnerabilities and global disparities respond to this uncertain future? How should we prioritise adaptation to overcome the resulting future risks? This paper analyses the broad question of how climate change science may provide some insights into these issues. The data provided for the analysis are the product of our new research on global impacts of climate change in agriculture. The questions are analysed across world regions to provide some thoughts on policy development.
    Keywords: N50 - General, International, or Comparative, Q18 - Agricultural Policy ; Food Policy, Q54 - Climate ; Natural Disasters ; Global Warming
    Print ISSN: 0165-1587
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    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition , Economics
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    Population, Poverty, and Climate Change (2014)
    Oxford University Press
    Details
    Publication Date: 2014-01-22
    Description: This literature review focuses on the relationships between population, poverty, and climate change. Developed countries are largely responsible for global warming, but the brunt of the fallout will be borne by developing countries in forms such as lower agricultural output, poorer health, and more frequent natural disasters. Although carbon emissions per capita have leveled off in developed countries, they are projected to rise rapidly in developing countries because of economic growth and population growth. Unfortunately, the latter will rise most notably in the poorest countries, combining with climate change to slow poverty reduction. These countries have many incentives to lower fertility. Previous studies indicate that in high fertility settings, fertility decline facilitates economic growth and poverty reduction. It also reduces the pressure on livelihoods and frees resources that can be used to cope with climate change. Moreover, slowing population growth helps avert some of the projected global warming, which will benefit the poorest countries far more than it will benefit developed countries that lie at higher latitudes and/or have more resources to cope with climate change. Natural experiments indicate that family-planning programs are effective and highly pro-poor in their impact. While the rest of the world wrestles with the complexities of reducing emissions, the poorest countries will benefit from simple programs to lower fertility.
    Keywords: Q56 - Environment and Development ; Environment and Trade ; Sustainability ; Environmental Accounting ; , Q54 - Climate ; Natural Disasters ; Global Warming, J13 - Fertility ; Family Planning ; Child Care ; Children ; Youth, J18 - Public Policy
    Print ISSN: 0257-3032
    Electronic ISSN: 1564-6971
    Topics: Economics
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    Information Manipulation and Climate Agreements (2014)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2014-04-05
    Description: It appears that news media and some pro-environmental organizations have the tendency to accentuate or even exaggerate the damage caused by climate change. This article provides a rationale for this tendency by using a modified International Environmental Agreement (IEA) model with asymmetric information. We find that the information manipulation has an instrumental value, as it ex post induces more countries to participate in an IEA, which will eventually enhance global welfare. From the ex ante perspective, however, the impact that manipulating information has on the level of participation in an IEA and on welfare is ambiguous.
    Keywords: D82 - Asymmetric and Private Information, L82 - Entertainment ; Media, Q54 - Climate ; Natural Disasters ; Global Warming
    Print ISSN: 0002-9092
    Electronic ISSN: 1467-8276
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition , Economics
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    Adaptation to climate change in Sub-Saharan agriculture: assessing the evidence and rethinking the drivers (2014)
    Oxford University Press
    Details
    Publication Date: 2014-07-03
    Description: In this paper, after a review of the evolution of the literature on climate change economics in agriculture, I present some evidence of the impact of different moments of the distribution of rainfall on farmers risk aversion. It is found that while more rainfall is negatively associated with the probability of observing risk aversion, rainfall variability is positively correlated. This result highlights an important behavioural dimension of climatic factors.
    Keywords: Q54 - Climate ; Natural Disasters ; Global Warming, Q56 - Environment and Development ; Environment and Trade ; Sustainability ; Environmental Accounting
    Print ISSN: 0165-1587
    Electronic ISSN: 1464-3618
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition , Economics
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    Low disease-causing threshold in a frog species susceptible to chytridiomycosis (2016)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2016-05-20
    Description: A simple diagnosis of the presence or absence of an infection is an uninformative metric when individuals differ considerably in their tolerance to different infection loads or resistance to rates of disease progression. Models that incorporate the relationship between the progression of the infection with the potential alternate outcomes provide a far more powerful predictive tool than diagnosis alone. The global decline of amphibians has been amplified by Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis , a pathogen that can cause the fatal disease chytridiomycosis. We measured the infection load and observed signs of disease in Litoria aurea . Receiver operating characteristic curves were used to quantify the dissimilarity between the infection loads of L. aurea that showed signs associated with chytridiomycosis and those that did not. Litoria aurea had a 78% probability of developing chytridiomycosis past a threshold of 68 zoospore equivalents (ZE) per swab and chytridiomycosis occurred within a variable range of 0.5–490 ZE. Studies should incorporate a species-specific threshold as a predictor of chytridiomycosis, rather than a binary diagnosis. Measures of susceptibility to chytridiomycosis must account not only for the ability of B. dendrobatidis to increase its abundance on the skin of amphibians but also to determine how each species tolerates these infection loads.
    Keywords: Pathogens & Pathogenicity
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    Topics: Biology
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    Photo-catalytic inactivation of an Enterococcus biofilm: the anti-microbial effect of sulphated and europium-doped titanium dioxide nanopowders (2016)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2016-03-24
    Description: The control and prevention of biofilm-related infections is an important public healthcare issue. Given the increasing antibiotic resistance among bacteria and fungi that cause serious infections in humans, promotion of new strategies combating microorganisms has been essential. One attractive approach to inactivate microorganisms is the use of semiconductor photo-catalysis, which has become the subject of extensive research. In this study, the bactericidal properties of four photo-catalysts, TiO 2 , TiO 2 -S, TiO 2 -Eu and TiO 2 -Eu-S, were investigated against established 24, 48, 72 and 96 h biofilms of Enterococcus . The exposure of biofilms to the catalysts induced the production of superoxide radical anions. The best photo-catalytic inactivation was achieved with the TiO 2 -Eu-S and TiO 2 -S nanopowders and 24 h biofilms. Transmission electron microscopy images showed significant changes in the structure of the biofilm cells following photo-inactivation. The results suggest that doping with europium and modifying the surface with sulphate groups enhanced the bactericidal activity of the TiO 2 nanoparticles against enterococcal biofilms.
    Keywords: Pathogens & Pathogenicity
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    Twitching motility and cAMP levels: signal transduction through a single methyl-accepting chemotaxis protein (2016)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2016-05-25
    Description: The Pseudomonas aeruginosa Chp chemosensory system regulates twitching motility, intracellular adenosine 3 '' 5 ' -cyclic monophosphate (cAMP) levels and is postulated to be involved in directional twitching towards phosphatidylethanolamine (PE). Because PilJ is the only methyl-accepting chemotaxis protein (MCP) identified in the Chp system, we determined the role of PilJ in mediating signal transduction for the distinct outputs of this system. Mutants that lack the periplasmic domain of PilJ ( pilJ 74-273 ) showed lower levels of cAMP but retained directional twitching towards PE. While initial studies revealed reduced twitching motility by PilJ 74-273 , this was due to decreased cAMP levels. Our data illustrate the importance of the periplasmic domain of PilJ in regulating cAMP. This is the first time a defined domain within PilJ has been identified as having a distinct role in signal transduction.
    Keywords: Pathogens & Pathogenicity
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    Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae requires H-NS-family protein XrvC to regulate virulence during rice infection (2016)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2016-04-24
    Description: Histone-like nucleoid-structuring (H-NS) proteins, which are conserved in Gram-negative bacteria, bind DNA and act as the global transcriptional repressors. In this study, we identified and characterized the xrvC gene encoding a H-NS protein in Xathomonas oryzae pv. oryzae ( Xoo ) Philippines strain PXO99 A . Compared with the wild type, the xrvC -deficient mutant of PXO99 A (named PXO99 xrvC ) showed a reduced growth rate in both nutrient-rich and nutrient-limited media. Interestingly, PXO99 xrvC exhibited significantly reduced virulence on rice cultivar IRBB214, but its virulence on 31 other rice cultivars was not affected. Transcriptional analysis revealed that the expression of hrpG , hrpX and hpa1 and of 15 out of 18 tested non-TAL (transcription activator-like) effector genes was decreased significantly in the xrvC mutant compared with that in the wild type. In addition, loss of xrvC also impaired the induction of the rice susceptibility gene Os8N3 in IRBB214 by PXO99 A . Our results suggest that the xrvC gene is involved in bacterial growth, and it plays a vital role in virulence by positively regulating the expression of hrp genes and non-TAL effector genes in PXO99 A and the susceptibility gene Os8N3 in rice.
    Keywords: Pathogens & Pathogenicity
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    The quantitative regulation of the hrp regulator HrpX is involved in sugar-source-dependent hrp gene expression in Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae (2016)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2016-04-24
    Description: In Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae , the pathogen of bacterial leaf blight of rice, hrp gene expression is regulated by the key hrp regulators HrpG and HrpX. HrpG regulates hrpX and hrpA , and HrpX regulates the other hrp genes on hrpB–hrpF operons. We previously examined the expression of the HrpX-regulated hrp gene hrcU and demonstrated that hrp gene expression is highly induced in a certain nutrient-poor medium containing xylose. In the present study, we found that the induction level of HrpX-regulated hrp genes was higher in medium with xylose than in media with any other sugar sources (glucose, sucrose and fructose), but that expression of hrpG , hrpX and hrpA was independent of the sugar sources. In western blot analysis, the accumulation of HrpX was reduced in media with a sugar other than xylose, probably as a result of proteolysis, but the addition of xylose canceled this reduced accumulation of the protein. The results suggest that proteolysis of HrpX is an important hrp regulatory mechanism and that xylose specifically suppresses this proteolysis, resulting in active hrp gene expression in X. oryzae pv. oryzae .
    Keywords: Pathogens & Pathogenicity
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    Use your antibiotics wisely. Consequences to the intestinal microbiome (2016)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2016-04-24
    Description: Antibiotic therapy has long term consequences in the intestinal microbiome. Clostridium difficile has a well-known role in antibiotic-associated diarrhea, but in addition, persistent infection with this organism may increase the risk for developing inflammatory bowel disease. Here, recent literature on how the intestinal microbiome is altered by antibiotic therapy is presented.
    Keywords: Pathogens & Pathogenicity
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    Evaluation of polymorphisms in pbp4 gene and genetic diversity in penicillin-resistant, ampicillin-susceptible Enterococcus faecalis from hospitals in different states in Brazil (2016)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2016-03-13
    Description: The aim of the present study was to verify whether penicillin-resistant, ampicillin-susceptible Enterococcus faecalis (PRASEF) occurred in Brazil prior to the beginning of the 21st century, and to verify whether ampicillin susceptibility can predict susceptibility to other β-lactams in E. faecalis with this inconsistent phenotype. The presence of polymorphisms in the pbp4 gene and genetic diversity among the isolates were investigated. Of 21 PRASEF analyzed, 5 (23.8%) and 4 (19.0%) were imipenem and piperacillin resistant simultaneously by disk diffusion and broth dilution respectively, contradicting the current internationally accepted standards of susceptibility testing. Sequencing of pbp4 gene revealed an amino acid substitution (Asp-573-〉Glu) in all PRASEF isolates but not in the penicillin-susceptible, ampicillin-susceptible E. faecalis . Most PRASEF (90.5%) had related pulsed-field gel electrophoresis profiles, but were different from other PRASEF described to date. Results demonstrate that penicillin-resistant, ampicillin-susceptible phenotype was already a reality in the 1990s in E. faecalis isolates in different Brazilian states, and some of these isolates were also imipenem- and piperacillin-resistant; therefore, internationally accepted susceptibility criteria cannot be applied to these isolates. According to pbp4 gene sequencing, this study suggests that a specific amino acid substitution in pbp4 gene found in all PRASEF analyzed is associated with penicillin resistance.
    Keywords: Pathogens & Pathogenicity
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    False detection of Coxiella burnetii--what is the risk? (2016)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2016-05-05
    Keywords: Pathogens & Pathogenicity
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    Dynamic Adjustment in US Agriculture under Climate Change (2016)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2016-04-24
    Description: We construct a stochastic dynamic dual model to investigate the structural adjustment of two aggregate output and three aggregate input categories in US agriculture under stochastic climatic change. More than a century of national annual data (1910–2011) is used in the empirical analysis. No constraints on asset fixity are imposed. Results indicate that, with rational expectations, both output categories as well as all input categories exhibit quasi-fixity in response to market change and stochastic climate change. Crops adjust more than twice as fast as livestock—49% versus 20% of the way toward their long-run equilibrium in one year. Fertilizer adjusts most rapidly toward equilibrium levels (88% in one year), and capital adjusts most slowly (5% in one year). Labor oscillates rather than converging smoothly toward equilibrium; its distance from equilibrium is the same as if it adjusted 59% of the way toward its optimal level in one year. Failing to anticipate climate change dramatically slows the estimated rate of adjustment for two netputs and modestly speeds the rate for two others, thus likely increasing overall adjustment costs. Failing to account for uncertainty in anticipated climate change has little impact on adjustment rates.
    Keywords: Q11 - Aggregate Supply and Demand Analysis ; Prices, Q54 - Climate ; Natural Disasters ; Global Warming
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    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition , Economics
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    Antigenic characterization of dimorphic surface protein in Mycobacterium tuberculosis (2016)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2016-04-24
    Description: The Mycobacterium tuberculosis Rv0679c protein is a surface protein that contributes to host cell invasion. We previously showed that a single nucleotide transition of the Rv0679c gene leads to a single amino acid substitution from asparagine to lysine at codon 142 in the Beijing genotype family. In this study, we examined the immunological effect of this substitution. Several recombinant proteins were expressed in Escherichia coli and Mycobacterium smegmatis and characterized with antisera and two monoclonal antibodies named 5D4-C2 and 8G10-H2. A significant reduction of antibody binding was detected by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and western blot analysis in the Lys142-type protein. This reduction of 8G10-H2 binding was more significant, with the disappearance of a signal in the proteins expressed by recombinant mycobacteria in western blot analysis. In addition, epitope mapping analysis of the recombinant proteins showed a linear epitope by 5D4-C2 and a discontinuous epitope by 8G10-H2. The antibody recognizing the conformational epitope detected only mycobacterial Asn142-type recombinant protein. Our results suggest that a single amino acid substitution of Rv0679c has potency for antigenic change in Beijing genotype strains.
    Keywords: Pathogens & Pathogenicity
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    LMOh7858_0369, a gene encoding a putative leucine-rich repeat-containing protein, is required for virulence of Listeria monocytogenes (2016)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2016-04-20
    Description: Listeria monocytogenes possesses the highest number of leucine-rich repeat (LRR)-containing proteins among all Gram-positive bacteria; these LRR-containing molecules are known as the ‘internalin’ family. To understand the functions of largely uncharacterized LRR-containing molecules, we constructed seven deletion mutants in the L. monocytogenes H7858 strain targeting genes in this family and tested their virulence. Among the seven mutants, the LMOh7858_0369 strain and the LMOh7858_2546 strain showed significantly impaired invasiveness of HepG2 cells. We further tested the virulence of these two strains in the intravascular sepsis model using BALB/c mice. Interestingly, the LMOh7858_0369 strain showed significant reduction in organ colonization, bacteremia and invasion of the brain compared with the parental wild-type strain. Host immune responses to listerial intravascular infection were measured at 24 and 72 h post-infection. Transcript levels of several proinflammatory cytokines and chemokines were significantly lower when induced by the lmOh7858_0369 strain than when induced by the wild type. These results suggest that the putative LRR-containing protein encoded by LMOh7858_0369 might be a novel virulence factor of the L. monocytogenes H7858 strain.
    Keywords: Pathogens & Pathogenicity
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    Heme sensing in Bacillus thuringiensis: a supplementary HssRS-regulated heme resistance system (2016)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2016-04-20
    Description: Several Gram-positive pathogens scavenge host-derived heme to satisfy their nutritional iron requirement. However, heme is a toxic molecule capable of damaging the bacterial cell. Gram-positive pathogens within the phylum Firmicutes overcome heme toxicity by sensing heme through HssRS, a two-component system that regulates the heme detoxification transporter HrtAB. Here we show that heme sensing by HssRS and heme detoxification by HrtAB occur in the insect pathogen Bacillus thuringiensis . We find that in B. thuringiensis , HssRS directly regulates an operon, hrmXY , encoding hypothetical membrane proteins that are not found in other Firmicutes with characterized HssRS and HrtAB systems. This novel HssRS-regulated operon or its orthologs BMB171_c3178 and BMB171_c3330 are required for maximal heme resistance. Furthermore, the activity of HrmXY is not dependent on expression of HrtAB. These results suggest that B. thuringiensis senses heme through HssRS and induces expression of separate membrane-localized systems capable of overcoming different aspects of heme toxicity.
    Keywords: Pathogens & Pathogenicity
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    Detection and quantification of virulent Aeromonas hydrophila in channel catfish tissues following waterborne challenge (2016)
    Oxford University Press
    Details
    Publication Date: 2016-04-20
    Description: The aim of this study was to understand the pathogenesis of motile aeromonas septicemia caused by an emergent, high virulent Aeromonas hydrophila (vAh) in channel catfish, Ictalurus punctatus . Adipose fin clipped catfish were challenged with vAh using a waterborne challenge method, and the distribution of vAh over a time course was detected and quantified using real-time polymerase chain reaction. The results showed that 77.8% of fish died within 48 h post challenge with mean day to death of 1.5 days. At 2 h post challenge, vAh (inferred from genomic DNA copies or genome equivalents) was detected in all external and internal tissues sampled. Gill had the highest vAh cells at 1 h post challenge. Spleen harbored the most vAh cells among internal organs at 4 h post challenge. The tissues/organs with most vAh cells detected at 8 h post challenge were adipose fin, blood, intestine, kidney and skin, while liver showed the highest vAh cells at 24 h post challenge. These results suggest that vAh was able to rapidly proliferate and spread, following wound infection, through the fish blood circulation system and cause mortality within 8–24 h.
    Keywords: Pathogens & Pathogenicity
    Print ISSN: 0378-1097
    Electronic ISSN: 1574-6968
    Topics: Biology
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    The major autolysin is redundant for Staphylococcus aureus USA300 LAC JE2 virulence in a murine device-related infection model (2016)
    Oxford University Press
    Details
    Publication Date: 2016-04-20
    Description: The major Staphylococcus aureus autolysin, Atl, has been implicated in attachment to surfaces and release of extracellular DNA during biofilm formation under laboratory conditions. Consistent with this, polyclonal antibodies to the amidase and glucosaminidase domains of Atl inhibited in vitro biofilm formation. However, in a murine model of device-related infection the community-associated S. aureus strain USA300 LAC JE2 established a successful infection in the absence of atl . These data indicate that Atl activity is not required for biofilm production in this infection model and reveal the importance of characterizing the contribution of biofilm phenotypes to virulence under in vivo conditions.
    Keywords: Pathogens & Pathogenicity
    Print ISSN: 0378-1097
    Electronic ISSN: 1574-6968
    Topics: Biology
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    Agriculture Afforestation for Carbon Sequestration Under Carbon Markets in the United States: Leakage Behavior from Regional Allowance Programs (2016)
    Oxford University Press
    Details
    Publication Date: 2016-02-10
    Description: This study quantifies how leakage behavior from afforesting agricultural land affects the intensification of agricultural production. In particular, we examine the leakage percentage from carbon offset allowance at specific southern regions in the United States as a part of a carbon market. We use the Forest and Agriculture Sector Optimization Model-Greenhouse Gases model to examine responses between sectors as part of the regional afforestation policy analysis. Regional characteristics and a policy's time frame are found to play important roles in achieving net gains, in terms of greenhouse gases stored, from such regional policies. In some cases, however, leakage greater than 100% is evident.
    Keywords: Q23 - Forestry, Q54 - Climate ; Natural Disasters ; Global Warming, R14 - Land Use Patterns
    Print ISSN: 2040-5790
    Electronic ISSN: 2040-5804
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition , Economics
    Published by Oxford University Press
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    New Uses of Old Tools? Greenhouse Gas Mitigation with Agriculture Sector Policies (2013)
    Oxford University Press
    Details
    Publication Date: 2013-11-22
    Description: Following the failure of legislative proposals for a multi-sector greenhouse gas (GHG) cap-and-trade policy, the shift in focus to energy sector policies ignores the perhaps substantial potential for GHG mitigation from agriculture/forestry. We review estimates of the current U.S. agriculture sector contribution to GHG mitigation from a portfolio of existing sector policies in bioenergy, conservation, and research and development to compare accomplishments across programs. We then consider what opportunities and challenges may exist for increasing sector GHG mitigation by retargeting and/or expanding current programs—or for bioenergy-related mitigation, implementing proposed new programs—to serve as an alternative to cap-and-trade.
    Keywords: Q16 - R&D ; Agricultural Technology ; Agricultural Extension Services, Q42 - Alternative Energy Sources, Q54 - Climate ; Natural Disasters ; Global Warming, Q58 - Government Policy
    Print ISSN: 2040-5790
    Electronic ISSN: 2040-5804
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition , Economics
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    Cutting Carbon, Take Two: A Brief Guide to Federal Electricity-Sector Climate Policy without Cap-and-Trade (2013)
    Oxford University Press
    Details
    Publication Date: 2013-11-22
    Description: This paper explores federal policies, other than a carbon price, for reducing emissions from the electric power sector. These policies fall into two major categories: policies that encourage the development of non- or low-emitting energy sources, and regulatory policies under existing legal authority (primarily the Clean Air Act). The paper provides an overview of policy options and a few concrete proposals, along with a summary of insights from economists on their advantages and disadvantages. Economists generally disfavor investment subsidies, but comparing other policy options, including regulatory approaches, technology mandates, and production subsidies, is complex. Excluding existing clean generation from incentive policies is tempting but can lead to perverse outcomes.
    Keywords: L94 - Electric Utilities, Q54 - Climate ; Natural Disasters ; Global Warming
    Print ISSN: 2040-5790
    Electronic ISSN: 2040-5804
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition , Economics
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    Eha, a regulator of Edwardsiella tarda, required for resistance to oxidative stress in macrophages (2016)
    Oxford University Press
    Details
    Publication Date: 2016-10-26
    Description: Edwardsiella tarda is distributed widely in a variety of hosts. Eha has recently been found to be its virulence regulator. In order to explore the mechanism of its regulation, we investigated the survival rates of wild type strain ET13, and its eha mutant and complemented strains in RAW264.7 macrophages under light microscopic observation as well as by counting bacterial CFUs on the plates. All of the different strains could live within the macrophages; however, the intracellular numbers of the wild type were significantly higher than the mutant when the incubation time extended 4 h or 6 h ( P 〈 0.05). Furthermore, more ROS were produced by the mutant-infected cells, indicating that Eha may enhance ET13's capacity to detoxify ROS. In agreement with this, we found that the mutant exhibited more sensitivity by H 2 O 2 disk inhibitory assay and less survival ability with H 2 O 2 treatment. We further demonstrated that the bacterial antioxidant enzymes SodC and KatG were regulated by Eha with qRT-PCR and β -galactosidase assay. Collectively, our data show Eha is required for E. tarda to resist the oxidative stress from the macrophages.
    Keywords: Pathogens & Pathogenicity
    Print ISSN: 0378-1097
    Electronic ISSN: 1574-6968
    Topics: Biology
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    Capsule of Streptococcus equi subsp. zooepidemicus hampers the adherence and invasion of epithelial and endothelial cells and is attenuated during internalization (2016)
    Oxford University Press
    Details
    Publication Date: 2016-08-07
    Description: Direct interaction between pathogens and host cells often is a prerequisite for colonization, infection and dissemination. Regulated production of capsular polysaccharide (CPS), which is made of hyaluronic acid, is essential for the pathogenicity of Streptococcus equi subsp. Zooepidemicus (SEZ). Here, we constructed a CPS-deleted mutant and analyzed it along with the parental wild-type strain in attachment and invasion of mammalian epithelial and endothelial cell lines. The CPS-deleted mutant exhibited significant increase in adherence and invasion by several orders of magnitude compared with the wild-type strain through quantitative analysis and electron microscopy observation. After the wild-type strain was recovered from invaded cells, its morphology was analyzed by visual methods and scanning electron microscopy, which revealed that its capsule was almost completely absent. Capsule measurements showed a similar result in which CPS production was nearly attenuated to the same extent as in the CPS-deleted mutant. qPCR assays revealed a marked reduction in the transcriptional levels of the CPS biosynthesis genes, has operon. Moreover, the repression in capsular production was stable inheritance. Our findings indicate that SEZ is a facultative intracellular bacterium, capsule attenuation in SEZ contributes to attachment and invasion in interactions with host cells, and the active regulation of capsule breakdown is controlled by SEZ during internalization.
    Keywords: Pathogens & Pathogenicity
    Print ISSN: 0378-1097
    Electronic ISSN: 1574-6968
    Topics: Biology
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    A predicted cation transporter protein, BPSS1228, is involved in intracellular behaviour of Burkholderia pseudomallei in a human lung epithelial cell line (A549) (2016)
    Oxford University Press
    Details
    Publication Date: 2016-12-23
    Description: Burkholderia pseudomallei causes melioidosis, a potentially fatal infectious disease in tropical and subtropical countries worldwide. The intracellular behaviour of this pathogen in host cells has been reported to impact the severity of melioidosis, including the development of septicaemia, a consequence of pneumonia melioidosis. We previously identified a predicted cation transporter protein, BPSS1228, that participates in the transitional stage of this intracellular pathogen. For further analysis, in this study B. pseudomallei bpss1228 mutant and complemented strains were constructed and bacterial infectivity on human lung epithelial cells, A549, investigated in vitro . Burkholderia pseudomallei bpss1228 mutant showed impaired bacterial adhesion and invasion into A549 cells compared with wild-type strain, while the deficient phenotypes were restored to wild-type levels by the complemented strain. Additionally, the inactivation of bpss1228 in the mutant strain affected flagella-based swimming on a semi-solid surface and resistance to acid stresses simulating intracellular environments. These observations of BPSS1228 relating to B. pseudomallei infection strategies shed a new light on its association with intracellular B. pseudomallei during the interaction with host cells.
    Keywords: Pathogens & Pathogenicity
    Print ISSN: 0378-1097
    Electronic ISSN: 1574-6968
    Topics: Biology
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    Theoretical and experimental evidence for eliminating persister bacteria by manipulating killing timing (2016)
    Oxford University Press
    Details
    Publication Date: 2016-12-23
    Description: Formation of a transient sub-population of bacteria, referred to as persisters, is one of the most important and least understood mechanisms that bacteria employ to evade elimination. Persister cells appear to be slow-growing bacteria that are broadly protected from a wide range of antibiotics. Using both theoretical and experimental methods, we show that alternating the application and withdrawal of antibiotics can be an effective treatment—as long as the timing of the protocol is estimated with precision. More specifically, we demonstrate that timing the alternating treatment based on theoretical predictions is confirmed using experimental observations. These results support a large class of theoretical studies that show that, even without complete understanding of the biological mechanisms, these models can provide insight into properties of the system.
    Keywords: Pathogens & Pathogenicity
    Print ISSN: 0378-1097
    Electronic ISSN: 1574-6968
    Topics: Biology
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    N-(3-oxo-hexanoyl)-homoserine lactone has a critical contribution to the quorum-sensing-dependent regulation in phytopathogen Pseudomonas syringae pv. tabaci 11528 (2016)
    Oxford University Press
    Details
    Publication Date: 2016-12-23
    Description: The phytopathogen Pseudomonas syringae pv. tabaci 11528 ( P. syringae 11528), causing wild-fire disease in soybean and tobacco plants, processes PsyI-PsyR quorum-sensing (QS) system, in which PsyI is the N -(3-oxo-hexanoyl)-homoserine lactone (3OC6-HSL) synthase. In comparison to P. syringae 11528 AHL-deficient mutant, 845 3OC6-HSL-dependent genes were identified using RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) in the AHL-deficient mutant grown with exogenous 3OC6-HSL in the transition from the exponential to the stationary phase, and many of them were associated with virulence, which were negatively regulated. The gene ontology and KEGG pathway enrichment analysis of those genes presented that the most pronounced regulation was involved in bacterial motility. Moreover, similar expression profiles of genes during growth phases were observed in both the wild type and the AHL-deficient mutant with exogenous 3OC6-HSL compared with the AHL-deficient mutant. These findings imply that 3OC6-HSL has a critical contribution to the QS-dependent regulation on gene expression, and 3OC6-HSL-dependent regulation may play a significant role in plant infection.
    Keywords: Pathogens & Pathogenicity
    Print ISSN: 0378-1097
    Electronic ISSN: 1574-6968
    Topics: Biology
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    Characterization of the Cag pathogenicity island in Helicobacter pylori from naturally infected rhesus macaques (2016)
    Oxford University Press
    Details
    Publication Date: 2016-12-29
    Description: Helicobacter pylori commonly infects the epithelial layer of the human stomach and in some individuals causes peptic ulcers, gastric adenocarcinoma or gastric lymphoma. Helicobacter pylori is a genetically diverse species, and the most important bacterial virulence factor that increases the risk of developing disease, versus asymptomatic colonization, is the cytotoxin associated gene pathogenicity island ( cag PAI). Socially housed rhesus macaques are often naturally infected with H. pylori similar to that which colonizes humans, but little is known about the cag PAI. Here we show that H. pylori strains isolated from naturally infected rhesus macaques have a cag PAI very similar to that found in human clinical isolates, and like human isolates, it encodes a functional type IV secretion system. These results provide further support for the relevance of rhesus macaques as a valid experimental model for H. pylori infection in humans.
    Keywords: Pathogens & Pathogenicity
    Print ISSN: 0378-1097
    Electronic ISSN: 1574-6968
    Topics: Biology
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    Molecular variability and genetic relationship among Brazilian strains of the sugarcane smut fungus (2016)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2016-12-29
    Description: Sporisorium scitamineum is the fungus that causes sugarcane smut disease. Despite of the importance of sugarcane for Brazilian agribusiness and the persistence of the pathogen in most cropping areas, genetic variation studies are still missing for Brazilian isolates. In this study, sets of isolates were analyzed using two molecular markers (AFLP and telRFLP) and ITS sequencing. Twenty-two whips were collected from symptomatic plants in cultivated sugarcane fields of Brazil. A total of 41 haploid strains of compatible mating types were selected from individual teliospores and used for molecular genetic analyses. telRFLP and ITS analyses were expanded to six Argentine isolates, where the sugarcane smut was first recorded in America. Genetic relationship among strains suggests the human-mediated dispersal of S. scitamineum within the Brazilian territory and between the two neighboring countries. Two genetically distinct groups were defined by the combined analysis of AFLP and telRFLP. The opposite mating-type strains derived from single teliospores were clustered together into these main groups, but had not always identical haplotypes. telRFLP markers analyzed over two generations of selfing and controlled outcrossing confirmed the potential for emergence of new variants and occurrence of recombination, which are relevant events for evolution of virulence and environmental adaptation.
    Keywords: Pathogens & Pathogenicity
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    Climate change and regulation of nitrogen loads under moral hazard (2014)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2014-03-07
    Description: Within the European Union, it is agreed that watershed-based management of water quality problems is more efficient than centralised arrangements. In this study, a mechanism for allocating international funds to watershed authorities for nitrogen abatement in the presence of moral hazard is investigated. The results show that when there is a risk of climate change, the cost of moral hazard to the international funding agency can be high if there is a moderate likelihood of climate change and the watershed authority is guaranteed a high minimum compensation.
    Keywords: Q53 - Air Pollution ; Water Pollution ; Noise ; Hazardous Waste ; Solid Waste ; Recycling, Q54 - Climate ; Natural Disasters ; Global Warming, Q58 - Government Policy
    Print ISSN: 0165-1587
    Electronic ISSN: 1464-3618
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition , Economics
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    Potential Effects of Climate Change on the Productivity of U.S. Dairies (2014)
    Oxford University Press
    Details
    Publication Date: 2014-07-23
    Description: In the United States, climate change is likely to increase average daily temperatures and the frequency of heat waves, which can reduce meat and milk production in animals. Methods that livestock producers use to mitigate thermal stress—including modifications to animal management or housing—tend to increase production costs. We use operation-level economic data coupled with finely-scaled climate data to estimate how the local thermal environment affects the technical efficiency of dairies across the United States. We then use this information to estimate the possible decline in milk production in 2030 resulting from climate change-induced heat stress under the simplifying assumptions that the production technology, location of production, and other factors are held constant. For four climate model scenarios, the results indicate modest heat-stress-related production declines by 2030, with the largest declines occurring in the southern states.
    Keywords: D24 - Production ; Cost ; Capital and Total Factor Productivity ; Capacity, Q12 - Micro Analysis of Farm Firms, Farm Households, and Farm Input Markets, Q54 - Climate ; Natural Disasters ; Global Warming
    Print ISSN: 0002-9092
    Electronic ISSN: 1467-8276
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition , Economics
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    Extreme Weather and Civil War: Does Drought Fuel Conflict in Somalia through Livestock Price Shocks? (2014)
    Oxford University Press
    Details
    Publication Date: 2014-07-23
    Description: A growing body of evidence shows a causal relationship between extreme weather events and civil conflict incidence at the global level. We find that this causality is also valid for droughts and local violent conflicts in a within-country setting over a short time frame in the case of Somalia. We estimate that a one standard deviation increase in drought intensity and length raises the likelihood of conflict by 62%. We also find that drought affects conflict through livestock price changes, establishing livestock markets as the primary channel of transmission in Somalia.
    Keywords: D74 - Conflict ; Conflict Resolution ; Alliances, O12 - Microeconomic Analyses of Economic Development, Q11 - Aggregate Supply and Demand Analysis ; Prices, Q54 - Climate ; Natural Disasters ; Global Warming
    Print ISSN: 0002-9092
    Electronic ISSN: 1467-8276
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition , Economics
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    Solar Geoengineering's Brave New World: Thoughts on the Governance of an Unprecedented Technology (2014)
    Oxford University Press
    Details
    Publication Date: 2014-07-23
    Description: Due to the failure of international efforts to limit atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases, consideration is now being given to solar geoengineering—a deliberate intervention to limit global warming without altering the atmospheric concentration of greenhouse gases. In contrast to emission cuts, geoengineering is expected to be cheap, quick to lower temperature, and feasible through the use of a single intervention. However, geoengineering is an imperfect substitute for emission reductions and will likely have undesirable side effects, only some of which can be anticipated before geoengineering is deployed. Most importantly, because geoengineering can be undertaken unilaterally, it creates issues of governance: Who gets to decide if, when, and how geoengineering should be attempted? This article provides an introduction to the key issues surrounding the governance of this unprecedented technology. ( JEL : Q54, F53, K33)
    Keywords: Q54 - Climate ; Natural Disasters ; Global Warming, F53 - International Agreements and Observance ; International Organizations, K33 - International Law
    Print ISSN: 1750-6816
    Electronic ISSN: 1750-6824
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering , Political Science , Economics
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    Climate Engineering: Economic Considerations and Research Challenges (2014)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2014-07-23
    Description: Climate engineering measures are designed to either reduce atmospheric carbon concentration (by growing trees or spreading iron in the ocean, for example) or directly influence the radiation reaching or leaving the earth (by injecting sulfur into the stratosphere or modifying cloud formations, for example) to compensate for greenhouse gas–induced warming. The former measures are termed carbon dioxide removal (CDR), which we characterize as a low-leverage causative approach, and the latter are termed radiation management (RM), which we characterize as a high-leverage symptomatic approach. There are similarities between CDR and emission control. Accordingly, benefit-cost analysis can be used to assess certain CDR measures. By contrast, high-leverage RM represents a genuinely new option in the climate change response portfolio, at first glance promising insurance against fat-tail climate change risks. However, the persistent intrinsic uncertainties of RM suggest that any cautious climate risk management approach should consider RM as a complement to (rather than a substitute for) emission control at best. Moreover, the complexity of the earth system imposes major limitations on the ability of research to reduce these uncertainties. Thus we argue that a research strategy is needed that focuses on increasing our basic understanding of the earth system and conducting comprehensive assessments of the risk(s) associated with both climate change and the deployment of climate engineering. ( JEL : Q52, Q54, Q55)
    Keywords: Q52 - Pollution Control Costs ; Distributional Effects ; Employment Effects, Q54 - Climate ; Natural Disasters ; Global Warming, Q55 - Technological Innovation
    Print ISSN: 1750-6816
    Electronic ISSN: 1750-6824
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering , Political Science , Economics
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    Climate Policy: Science, Economics, and Extremes (2014)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2014-07-23
    Description: Climate scientists, and natural scientists more generally, believe that climate change is a major, perhaps the most important, problem facing humankind this century, and that it is increasingly linked to extreme weather events. However, the impression one gets from much of the economic literature, particularly simulations from integrated assessment models used in policy analysis, is that the potential impacts of climate change are not large enough to warrant aggressive mitigation efforts in the near term. Although these models represent an important step in the needed interdisciplinary analysis of climate change by elucidating the links between climate and economy, we argue that they grossly underestimate potential impacts and associated damages because they (and the related policy analyses) fail to adequately capture extreme conditions, catastrophic events, and tipping points that trigger irreversible changes in the climate system, as well as impacts on the natural environment that cannot be monetized. Because the most severe impacts are expected in the later years of this century and beyond, discounting is crucial, and we argue that the appropriate rate is well below market rates. Moreover, we show that in the uniquely long period relevant to climate policy, the irreversibility of climate changes and impacts is more serious than the irreversibility of proposed mitigation measures. We conclude that an aggressive mitigation policy is warranted, one that holds further increases in global mean temperature to the scientific consensus on what is required to avoid the worst impacts, and that such a policy can be achieved at a cost that is well below potential damages. ( JEL : Q54)
    Keywords: Q54 - Climate ; Natural Disasters ; Global Warming
    Print ISSN: 1750-6816
    Electronic ISSN: 1750-6824
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering , Political Science , Economics
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    Reflections: Uncertainty and Decision Making in Climate Change Economics (2014)
    Oxford University Press
    Details
    Publication Date: 2014-01-28
    Description: Uncertainty is intrinsic to climate change: we know that the climate is changing but not precisely how fast or in what ways. Nor do we understand fully the social and economic consequences of these changes or the options that will be available for reducing climate change. Furthermore, the uncertainty about these issues is not readily quantified in probabilistic terms: we are facing deep uncertainty rather than known risks. We argue that this may render the classical expected utility framework for decision making under uncertainty of limited value for informing climate policy. We review the sources of uncertainty about all aspects of climate change, separate these into scientific and socioeconomic components, and examine their relative importance. Then we review decision-making frameworks that may be more appropriate in the absence of unique probabilities including nonprobabilistic approaches and those based on multiple priors, and we discuss their application in the context of climate change economics. ( JEL : D81, Q54)
    Keywords: D81 - Criteria for Decision-Making under Risk and Uncertainty, Q54 - Climate ; Natural Disasters ; Global Warming
    Print ISSN: 1750-6816
    Electronic ISSN: 1750-6824
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering , Political Science , Economics
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    DeaD contributes to Pseudomonas aeruginosa virulence in a mouse acute pneumonia model (2016)
    Oxford University Press
    Details
    Publication Date: 2016-10-16
    Description: DExD/H box RNA helicases play essential roles in various biological processes in prokaryotes and eukaryotes. By screening Pseudomonas aeruginosa strains with mutations in various DExD/H box helicase genes, we identified that deaD was required for bacterial cytotoxicity and virulence in a mouse acute pneumonia model. Compared to a wild-type strain and its complementation strain, the deaD mutant induced less production of proinflammatory cytokines, neutrophil infiltration and lung damage during infection. We further found that the RNA helicase activity of DeaD was required for the expression of type III secretion system (T3SS) genes. Overexpression of ExsA, a master activator of the T3SS, restored the expression of T3SS genes as well as the virulence of the deaD mutant, suggesting that the attenuated virulence of the deaD mutant was mainly due to the defective T3SS. Overall, our results reveal a role of DeaD in the virulence of P. aeruginosa .
    Keywords: Pathogens & Pathogenicity
    Print ISSN: 0378-1097
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    Topics: Biology
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    The emerging problems of Klebsiella pneumoniae infections: carbapenem resistance and biofilm formation (2016)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2016-10-20
    Description: Klebsiella pneumoniae is an opportunistic pathogen that commonly causes nosocomial infections in the urinary tract, respiratory tract, lung, wound sites and blood in individuals with debilitating diseases. Klebsiella pneumoniae is still a cause of severe pneumonia in alcoholics in Africa and Asia, and the predominant primary pathogen of primary liver abscess in Taiwan and Southeast Asia, particularly in Asian and Hispanic patients, and individuals with diabetes mellitus. In the United States and Europe, K. pneumoniae infections are most frequently associated with nosocomial infections. The emergence of antibiotic-resistant strains of K. pneumoniae worldwide has become a cause of concern where extended-spectrum β-lactamases (ESBLs) and carbapenemase-producing strains have been isolated with increasing frequency. The pathogen's ability to form biofilms on inserted devices such as urinary catheter has been proposed as one of the important mechanisms in nosocomially acquired and persistent infections, adding to the increased resistance to currently used antibiotics. In this review, infections caused by K. pneumoniae , antibiotic resistance and formation of biofilm will be discussed.
    Keywords: Pathogens & Pathogenicity
    Print ISSN: 0378-1097
    Electronic ISSN: 1574-6968
    Topics: Biology
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    Effect of kpsM on the virulence of porcine extraintestinal pathogenic Escherichia coli (2016)
    Oxford University Press
    Details
    Publication Date: 2016-11-17
    Description: In recent years, extraintestinal pathogenic Escherichia coli (ExPEC) has been found to pose a great threat to human and animal health, but its pathogenic mechanism is not fully understood yet. Capsular polysaccharide, an essential virulence factor in these bacteria, can damage the host immune system, and kpsM is a member of the gene cluster responsible for capsular polysaccharide synthesis. In this study, whole sequence alignment of the virulent strain PCN033 and the attenuated strain PCN061 revealed that kpsM exists in PCN033 but not in PCN061. To determine its function and biological characteristics, we deleted kpsM from PCN033 by homologous recombination. The results of adhesion assays, phagocytosis assays and serum bactericidal assays together with the results of colonization assays in mice indicate that the deletion of kpsM decreases the virulence of porcine ExPEC. Our findings about the biological characteristics of kpsM help to elucidate the complex pathogenic mechanism of ExPEC.
    Keywords: Pathogens & Pathogenicity
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    Topics: Biology
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    Rethinking the Water-Food-Climate Nexus and Conflict: An Opportunity Cost Approach (2016)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2016-12-07
    Description: Much attention has been paid to the potential role that climate and food security has on conflict, especially in the Middle East. However, there has been little critical examination beyond the statistical correlation of events, which demonstrates whether a causal link exists and if it does, what can be done about it. This paper explores the conceptual linkages between food and conflict and attempts to draw attention to the opportunity cost of conflict as the nexus for decision-making in this context.
    Keywords: D74 - Conflict ; Conflict Resolution ; Alliances, Q18 - Agricultural Policy ; Food Policy, Q54 - Climate ; Natural Disasters ; Global Warming
    Print ISSN: 2040-5790
    Electronic ISSN: 2040-5804
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition , Economics
    Published by Oxford University Press
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    What Is the Social Value of Second Generation Biofuels? (2016)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2016-12-07
    Description: What are second-generation (2G) biofuel technologies worth to global society? A dynamic, economic model is used to assess the impact that introducing 2G biofuels technology has on crops, livestock, biofuels, forestry, and environmental services, as well as greenhouse gas emissions. Under baseline conditions, this amounts to $64 billion and is $84 billion under the optimistic technology case, suggesting that investing in 2G technology could be appropriate. Under greenhouse gas regulation, global valuation more than doubles to $139 and $174 billion, respectively. A flat energy price scenario eliminates the value of 2G technology to society.
    Keywords: Q15 - Land Ownership and Tenure ; Land Reform ; Land Use ; Irrigation, Q42 - Alternative Energy Sources, Q54 - Climate ; Natural Disasters ; Global Warming
    Print ISSN: 2040-5790
    Electronic ISSN: 2040-5804
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition , Economics
    Published by Oxford University Press
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    Arf6 controls endocytosis and polarity during asexual development of Magnaporthe oryzae (2016)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2016-12-16
    Description: Asexual development of phytopathogenic fungi such as Magnaporthe oryzae involves morphological changes that require spatiotemporal regulation of polarized growth. ADP-ribosylation factor 6 (Arf6) is a small GTPase known to regulate membrane trafficking and organization of the actin cytoskeleton at the cell surface, and consequently has an impact on cell morphology and polarity. In this study, we have functionally characterized the Arf6 homolog in M. oryzae , showing that arf6 exhibits hyperbranching at hyphal tips and morphologically abnormal conidia as a result of defective polarized growth. arf6 hyphae are also defective in endocytosis as evidenced by a significant delay of FM4-64 uptake. Most arf6 conidia display reduced conidial length, and have defects in conidial septum formation and nuclear distribution. Furthermore, arf6 conidia show a disorganized actin cytoskeleton with random distribution of actin patches at the cell cortex and reduced accumulation of tropomyosin. Arf6-GFP is found to concentrate at the septum area and possibly in endocytic vesicles. Taken together, our data indicate that Arf6 plays an essential role in endocytosis and polarity establishment during asexual development of M. oryzae.
    Keywords: Pathogens & Pathogenicity
    Print ISSN: 0378-1097
    Electronic ISSN: 1574-6968
    Topics: Biology
    Published by Oxford University Press
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    The Value of Heterogeneous Property Rights and the Costs of Water Volatility (2017)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2017-01-05
    Description: The system of prior appropriation in the Western Unites States prioritizes property rights for water based on the establishment of beneficial use, creating a hierarchy where rights initiated first are more secure. I estimate the demand for security in water rights through their capitalization in agricultural property markets in the Yakima River Basin, a major watershed in Washington State. All water rights are satisfied in an average year, so the relative value of secure property rights is a function of water supply volatility and the costs of droughts are predominantly born by those with weak rights. In aggregate, security in water rights does not capitalize into property values at the irrigation district level; however, there is heterogeneity in the premium for secure water rights. The lack of a premium for district-level water security is robust to a variety of econometric methods to account for correlated district unobservables, and the null result produces an economically significant upper bound on the value to water security for the district. The ability for farmers to adapt to water supply volatility, as well as expectations about water markets and government infrastructure investment, are leading explanations for the lack of an aggregate premium. These explanations are supported by the pattern of heterogeneity in the water security premium.
    Keywords: Q15 - Land Ownership and Tenure ; Land Reform ; Land Use ; Irrigation, Q21 - Demand and Supply, Q24 - Land, Q25 - Water, Q54 - Climate ; Natural Disasters ; Global Warming
    Print ISSN: 0002-9092
    Electronic ISSN: 1467-8276
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition , Economics
    Published by Oxford University Press
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    Comparative proteomic analysis unravels a role for EsrB in the regulation of reactive oxygen species stress responses in Edwardsiella piscicida (2017)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2017-01-13
    Description: As a leading pathogen, Edwardsiella piscicida can cause hemorrhagic septicemia in fish and gastro-intestinal infections in humans. The two-component regulatory system EsrA-EsrB plays essential roles in pathogenesis through the type III and type VI secretion systems, and hemolysin production in E. piscicida . It is unclear whether other virulence- or stress response-associated genes are regulated by EsrA-EsrB. In this study, the proteomes of wild-type E. piscicida EIB202 and esrB mutant strains were compared to reveal EsrB regulon components after growth in Luria–Bertani broth (LB). Overall, the expression levels of nine genes exhibited significant changes, and five of them required the presence of EsrB, while others exhibited higher levels in the esrB mutant. The diverse functions of these proteins were identified, including amino acid metabolism, oxidative stress defense and energy production. Interestingly, superoxidase dismutase and thiol peroxidase were the most significantly down-regulated by EsrB. Furthermore, other reported reactive oxygen species (ROS) resistance-related genes were also down-regulated by EsrB as revealed by quantitative real-time. Compared with the wild-type and the complement strain esrB + , esrB displayed a significantly enhanced ROS resistance. These results demonstrated that EsrB plays important roles in the ROS resistance pathway in E. piscicida grown in LB conditions.
    Keywords: Pathogens & Pathogenicity
    Print ISSN: 0378-1097
    Electronic ISSN: 1574-6968
    Topics: Biology
    Published by Oxford University Press
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    Importance of fumarate and nitrate reduction regulatory protein for intestinal proliferation of Vibrio vulnificus (2017)
    Oxford University Press
    Details
    Publication Date: 2017-01-13
    Description: The sepsis caused by Vibrio vulnificus is characterized by an average incubation period of 26 h and a high mortality rate exceeding 50%. The fast growth and dissemination of V. vulnificus in vivo lead to poor clinical outcomes in patients. Therefore, elucidation of the proliferation mechanisms of this organism in vivo may lead to the development of an effective therapeutic strategy. In this study, we focused on the low oxygen concentration in the intestinal milieu because of its drastic difference from that in air. Fumarate and nitrate reduction regulatory protein (FNR) is known to be a global transcriptional regulator for adaptation to anaerobic conditions in various bacteria. We generated a strain of V. vulnificus in which the fnr gene was replaced with an erythromycin resistance gene ( fnr :: erm mutant). When the fnr :: erm mutant was tested in a growth competition assay against the wild-type (WT) in vivo , the competitive index of fnr :: erm mutant to WT in the intestinal loop and liver was 0.378 ± 0.192 (mean ± SD) and 0.243 ± 0.123, respectively. These data suggested that FNR is important for the proliferation of V. vulnificus in the intestine to achieve a critical mass to be able to invade the systemic circulation.
    Keywords: Pathogens & Pathogenicity
    Print ISSN: 0378-1097
    Electronic ISSN: 1574-6968
    Topics: Biology
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    Efficient plasmid transduction to Staphylococcus aureus strains insensitive to the lytic action of transducing phage (2016)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2016-10-08
    Description: The transduction mediated by bacteriophages is considered to be one of the primary driving forces in horizontal gene transfer in staphylococci, which is crucial to their adaptation and successful evolution. For a transduction to be effective, it is generally accepted that the recipient strain should be susceptible to the transducing phage. In this study, we demonstrate that the plasmid DNAs are effectively transduced into the recipient Staphylococcus aureus strains in spite of their insensitivity to the lytic action of the transducing phage, provided that these phages adsorb effectively to the bacterial cells. The tetracycline and penicillinase plasmids were transduced to insensitive laboratory and clinical strains by bacteriophages 29, 52A and 80α as well as by prophage 53 and naturally occurring prophages induced from donor lysogenic strains. Comparable frequencies of transduction were achieved in both phage-sensitive and phage-insensitive recipient strains. We have demonstrated that such mechanisms as the restriction of DNA and lysogenic immunity which are responsible for insensitivity of cells to phages may not be a barrier to the transfer, maintenance and effective spread of plasmids to a wider range of potential recipients in the staphylococcal population.
    Keywords: Pathogens & Pathogenicity
    Print ISSN: 0378-1097
    Electronic ISSN: 1574-6968
    Topics: Biology
    Published by Oxford University Press
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    Cag-delta (Cag3) protein from the Helicobacter pylori 26695 cag type IV secretion system forms ring-like supramolecular assemblies (2017)
    Oxford University Press
    Details
    Publication Date: 2017-01-08
    Description: Helicobacter pylori is an important cause of gastric pathologies and persistent infection can lead to stomach cancer. Virulent H. pylori strains encode a type IV secretion system responsible for translocation of the oncogenic CagA protein into cells of the gastric mucosa. Gene HP0522 encodes the essential component Cag (Cag3), and we show by gel filtration and cross-linking that purified Cag forms high molecular mass complexes. In contrast, its interaction partner CagT is mostly monomeric, but co-fractionates after gel filtration. Analysis by transmission electron microscopy revealed that purified Cag complexes can self-assemble ring-like structures. Cag-overexpressing Escherichia coli exhibits membrane-associated circular profiles in regions of the cell envelope with intense immunogold labelling with a Cag-specific antiserum. Our results suggest that Cag has the capacity to form macromolecular structures contributing to the assembly of the type IV secretion system.
    Keywords: Pathogens & Pathogenicity
    Print ISSN: 0378-1097
    Electronic ISSN: 1574-6968
    Topics: Biology
    Published by Oxford University Press
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