ALBERT

Description: An approach for true-amplitude seismic beam imaging of multicomponent seismic data in 2-D anisotropic elastic media is presented and discussed. Here, the recovered true-amplitude function is a scattering potential. This approach is a migration procedure based on the weighted summation of pre-stack data. The true-amplitude weights are computed by applying Gaussian beams (GBs). We shoot a pair of properly chosen GBs with a fixed dip and opening angles from the current imaging point towards an acquisition system. This pair of beams is used to compute a true-amplitude selective image of a rapid velocity variation. The total true-amplitude image is constructed by superimposing selective images computed for a range of available dip angles. The global regularity of the GBs allows one to disregard whether a ray field is regular or irregular. P - and S -wave GBs can be used to handle raw multicomponent data without separating the waves. The use of anisotropic GBs allows one to take into account the anisotropy of the background model.

Description: We present a new 3-D seismic model of the western United States crust derived from a joint inversion of Rayleigh-wave phase velocity and ellipticity measurements using periods from 8 to 100 s. Improved constraints on upper-crustal structure result from use of short-period Rayleigh-wave ellipticity, or Rayleigh-wave H/V (horizontal to vertical) amplitude ratios, measurements determined using multicomponent ambient noise cross-correlations. To retain the amplitude ratio information between vertical and horizontal components, for each station, we perform daily noise pre-processing (temporal normalization and spectrum whitening) simultaneously for all three components. For each station pair, amplitude measurements between cross-correlations of different components (radial–radial, radial–vertical, vertical–radial and vertical–vertical) are then used to determine the Rayleigh-wave H/V ratios at the two station locations. We use all EarthScope/USArray Tranportable Array data available between 2007 January and 2011 June to determine the Rayleigh-wave H/V ratios and their uncertainties at all station locations and construct new Rayleigh-wave H/V ratio maps in the western United States between periods of 8 and 24 s. Combined with previous longer period earthquake Rayleigh-wave H/V ratio measurements and Rayleigh-wave phase velocity measurements from both ambient noise and earthquakes, we invert for a new 3-D crustal and upper-mantle model in the western United States. Correlation between the inverted model and known geological features at all depths suggests good resolution in five crustal layers. Use of short-period Rayleigh-wave H/V ratio measurements based on noise cross-correlation enables resolution of distinct near surface features such as the Columbia River Basalt flows, which overlie a thick sedimentary basin.

Description: We obtain 3-D V p and V p / V s from 8 to 70 km depth along the northern Hikurangi subduction zone, New Zealand, where the downdip limit of interseismic coupling is shallower than 15 km, and where both large shallow slow-slip events (SSEs) and small deep SSEs have been observed. Onshore–offshore marine-seismic data were incorporated, which greatly improved constraint of shallow velocities and the plate interface (PI) zone velocity structure. We also selected 2600 spatially distributed earthquakes, including seismic data from the upgraded permanent seismometer network, as well as seismic data from temporary networks deployed in 1993–1994, 2001 and 2011–2012. Our method used earthquake differential times and receiver differential times with gradational inversions. The results show extensive regions of subducted sediment, but with major variations along strike. Above the shallow PI (less than 20 km depth) and north of Gisborne there is a 70-km-long zone of high V p / V s and low V p , which is interpreted as subducted sediment with high fluid-pressure. Subducted sediment is also observed at shallower depth offshore in seismic reflection data, in the vicinity of the shallow SSEs. The SSE patch with highest slip occurs where a zone of high seismicity connects the high V p / V s upper oceanic crust to the slab upper mantle such that the oceanic crust may serve as a reservoir below the SSE slip zone and enhance dilatant strengthening. In deeper zones, where the PI is 25–45 km depth, there are northern and central zones of thick low V p , low Qp material related to underplated sediments, which are uplifting the Raukumara and Kaimanawa Ranges. Small deep (25–45 km) SSEs are related to the central deep underplated sediment zone, but no SSEs have been observed in the northern underplated zone.

Description: Differences between 3-D numerical predictions of earthquake ground motion in the Mygdonian basin near Thessaloniki, Greece, led us to define four canonical stringent models derived from the complex realistic 3-D model of the Mygdonian basin. Sediments atop an elastic bedrock are modelled in the 1D-sharp and 1D-smooth models using three homogeneous layers and smooth velocity distribution, respectively. The 2D-sharp and 2D-smooth models are extensions of the 1-D models to an asymmetric sedimentary valley. In all cases, 3-D wavefields include strongly dispersive surface waves in the sediments. We compared simulations by the Fourier pseudo-spectral method (FPSM), the Legendre spectral-element method (SEM) and two formulations of the finite-difference method (FDM-S and FDM-C) up to 4 Hz. The accuracy of individual solutions and level of agreement between solutions vary with type of seismic waves and depend on the smoothness of the velocity model. The level of accuracy is high for the body waves in all solutions. However, it strongly depends on the discrete representation of the material interfaces (at which material parameters change discontinuously) for the surface waves in the sharp models. An improper discrete representation of the interfaces can cause inaccurate numerical modelling of surface waves. For all the numerical methods considered, except SEM with mesh of elements following the interfaces, a proper implementation of interfaces requires definition of an effective medium consistent with the interface boundary conditions. An orthorhombic effective medium is shown to significantly improve accuracy and preserve the computational efficiency of modelling. The conclusions drawn from the analysis of the results of the canonical cases greatly help to explain differences between numerical predictions of ground motion in realistic models of the Mygdonian basin. We recommend that any numerical method and code that is intended for numerical prediction of earthquake ground motion should be verified through stringent models that would make it possible to test the most important aspects of accuracy.

Description: To refine the 3-D seismic velocity model in the greater Parkfield, California region, a new data set including regular earthquakes, shots, quarry blasts and low-frequency earthquakes (LFEs) was assembled. Hundreds of traces of each LFE family at two temporary arrays were stacked with time–frequency domain phase weighted stacking method to improve signal-to-noise ratio. We extend our model resolution to lower crustal depth with LFE data. Our result images not only previously identified features but also low velocity zones (LVZs) in the area around the LFEs and the lower crust beneath the southern Rinconada Fault. The former LVZ is consistent with high fluid pressure that can account for several aspects of LFE behaviour. The latter LVZ is consistent with a high conductivity zone in magnetotelluric studies. A new Vs model was developed with S picks that were obtained with a new autopicker. At shallow depth, the low Vs areas underlie the strongest shaking areas in the 2004 Parkfield earthquake. We relocate LFE families and analyse the location uncertainties with the NonLinLoc and tomoDD codes. The two methods yield similar results.

Description: Wide angle refraction and reflection measurements were carried out in the passive continental margin zone of the northwestern Svalbard during several expeditions in 1978–1999. Data from a set of 2-D archival and modern seismic profiles recorded in-line and off-line, and from an additional permanent seismic station, were altogether used for seismic modelling of the crustal structure of the study area. Seismic arrivals (airgun and chemical explosive sources) were recorded by land (onshore) seismic stations, ocean bottom seismometers (OBS), and ocean bottom hydrophone stations (OBH). Good quality refracted and reflected P waves have provided an excellent data base for a seismic modelling. Chemical explosive sources were recorded even up to 300 km distances. The 3-D tomographic inversion method was applied. The results are comparable to the earlier 2-D modelling. Additional off-line information allowed to develop a 3-D image of the crustal structure. The continental crust thins to the west and north. A minimum depth of about 6 km to the Moho interface was determined east of the Molloy Deep and in the Knipovich Ridge. The Moho discontinuity deepens down to about 30 km below the continental crust of Spitsbergen.

Description: This work presents an innovative strategy to enhance the resolution of surface wave tomography obtained from ambient noise cross-correlation ( C 1 ) by bridging asynchronous seismic networks through the correlation of coda of correlations ( C 3 ). Rayleigh wave group dispersion curves show consistent results between synchronous and asynchronous stations. Rayleigh wave group traveltimes are inverted to construct velocity–period maps with unprecedented resolution for a region covering Mexico and the southern United States. The resulting period maps are then used to regionalize dispersion curves in order to obtain local 1-D shear velocity models ( V S ) of the crust and uppermost mantle in every cell of a grid of 0.4°. The 1-D structures are obtained by iteratively adding layers until reaching a given misfit, and a global tomography model is considered as an input for depths below 150 km. Finally, a high-resolution 3-D V S model is obtained from these inversions. The major structures observed in the 3-D model are in agreement with the tectonic-geodynamic features and with previous regional and local studies. It also offers new insights to understand the present and past tectonic evolution of the region.

Description: The 1000-km-long left-lateral Dead Sea fault is a major tectonic structure of the oriental Mediterranean basin, bounding the Arabian Plate to the west. The fault is located in a region with an exceptionally long and rich historical record, allowing to document historical seismicity catalogues with unprecedented level of details. However, if the earthquake time series is well documented, location and lateral extent of past earthquakes remain often difficult to establish, if only based on historical testimonies. We excavated a palaeoseismic trench in a site located in a kilometre-size extensional jog, south of the Dead Sea, in the Wadi Araba. Based on the stratigraphy exposed in the trench, we present evidence for nine earthquakes that produced surface ruptures during a time period spanning 5000 yr. Abundance of datable material allows us to tie the five most recent events to historical earthquakes with little ambiguities, and to constrain the possible location of these historical earthquakes. The events identified at our site are the 1458 C.E., 1212 C.E., 1068 C.E., one event during the 8th century crisis, and the 363 C.E. earthquake. Four other events are also identified, which correlation with historical events remains more speculative. The magnitude of earthquakes is difficult to assess based on evidence at one site only. The deformation observed in the excavation, however, allows discriminating between two classes of events that produced vertical deformation with one order of amplitude difference, suggesting that we could distinguish earthquakes that started/stopped at our site from earthquakes that potentially ruptured most of the Wadi Araba fault. The time distribution of earthquakes during the past 5000 yr is uneven. The early period shows little activity with return interval of ~500 yr or longer. It is followed by a ~1500-yr-long period with more frequent events, about every 200 yr. Then, for the past ~550 yr, the fault has switched back to a quieter mode with no significant earthquake along the entire southern part of the Dead Sea fault, between the Dead Sea and the Gulf of Aqaba. We computed the Coefficient of Variation for our site and three other sites along the Dead Sea fault, south of Lebanon, to compare time distribution of earthquakes at different locations along the fault. With one exception at a site located next to Lake Tiberias, the three other sites are consistent to show some temporal clustering at the scale of few thousands years.

Description: The conventional finite-difference time-domain (FDTD) method for elastic waves suffers from the staircasing error when applied to model a curved free surface because of the structured grid. This is similar to the situation for the FDTD method in electromagnetics when it is applied to model a curved perfect conductor surface, where the conformal FDTD methods have been recently developed to avoid this error. In this work a stable and second-order accurate 2-D FDTD method for elastic wave modelling on a curved free surface is presented based on the finite volume method and enlarged cell technique (ECT). To achieve a sufficiently accurate implementation, a finite volume scheme is applied to the curved free surface to remove the staircasing error; in the meantime, to achieve the same stability as the FDTD method without reducing the time step increment, the ECT is introduced to preserve the solution stability even for small irregular cells. This method is verified by several 2-D numerical examples. Results show that the method is second-order accurate and stable at the Courant stability limit for a regular FDTD grid.

Description: The conventional finite-difference time-domain (FDTD) method for elastic waves suffers from the staircasing error when applied to model a curved free surface because of its structured grid. In this work, an improved, stable and accurate 3-D FDTD method for elastic wave modelling on a curved free surface is developed based on the finite volume method and enlarged cell technique (ECT). To achieve a sufficiently accurate implementation, a finite volume scheme is applied to the curved free surface to remove the staircasing error; in the mean time, to achieve the same stability as the FDTD method without reducing the time step increment, the ECT is introduced to preserve the solution stability by enlarging small irregular cells into adjacent cells under the condition of conservation of force. This method is verified by several 3-D numerical examples. Results show that the method is stable at the Courant stability limit for a regular FDTD grid, and has much higher accuracy than the conventional FDTD method.