ALBERT

Notes: Summary Glial cells are present throughout the cerebral ganglia ofHelix pomatia, including the nerves, connectives and the commissure. Five types of glial cells can be distinguished on the basis of ultrastructural and organizational features. The topographic distribution of the various types is constant. Two main categories are recognized: 1. Filamentous glial cells (satellite cells of pericarya and axons): The long, thin and ramifying processes of these glial cells surround the pericarya or the axons and form the trophospongia. The ultrastructure and the spatial form of the trophospongia is described in detail. The main criteria of both glial cell types are the lack of organellar specialization, a high content of filaments and glycogen and numerous lipid droplets. A strong linear correlation exists between the index (relative number of glial cells per neuron) of the satellite cells of pericarya and the diameter of neurons in all ganglia, as shown by morphometric methods at the light-microscopical level. A mechanical supportive role and, more importantly, a metabolic function of these glial cells in relation to the neurons and axons is discussed. 2. Plasmatic glial cells (peripheral glia of the ganglia and the nerves, glia of the procerebral neuropile): These three glial cell types are characterized by a rather low content of filaments, particularly in the cell body, and above all by numerous dictyosomes and cytosomes, which indicates a high endocytotic activity. The plasmatic glial cells can be found throughout the periphery of the cerebral ganglia, except for the cortex of the procerebrum.

Notes: Summary The ultrastructure of monociliary receptors in 10 species of the Proseriata and Neorhabdocoela is described, with particular reference to the epidermal dendritic part. Sensory cells with a single kinocilium situated at the level of the distal epidermis membrane are considered as mechano- or chemoreceptors. There exist sensory cells with a dendrite penetrating one epidermis cell and bearing an embedded kinocilium and a collar of 8 stereocilia or ridges with a fribrillose substructure. These collared receptors probably function as mechanoreceptors. In comparison with collared sensory cells in species of other turbellarian orders, the embedded receptors in the Proseriata and Neorhabdocoela are more advanced and possess synapomorphous characteristics. With the embedded receptors a new evidence is given for the close phylogenetic relationship between the Proseriata and Neorhabdocoela. The distribution of collared cells in the animal system and their phylogenetic implication for a choanoflagellate origin of the Metazoa are briefly discussed.

Notes: Summary The rectal papillae ofThrips consist of four types of cells arranged as a closed hollow pad. The inner layer is composed of five large primary cells (“Hauptzellen”) and of a drain cell (“Kanalzelle”). The primary cells contain glycogen in form ofβ-granula, and multivesicular bodies. Their apical cell membrane, forming numerous leaflets is associated with mitochondria and with a coat of repeating subunits on the cytoplasmic surface. The lateral plasma membrane of the primary cells has a sinuous course and is in close contact with numerous mitochondria. The intercellular spaces of the primary cell complex are drained to the central cavity of the papilla by a discharge formed by a curved elephant's trunk-like process of the drain cell. The outer layer of the papilla consists of an inner and an outer secondary cell (“Nebenzellen”). Their differentiations related to fluid transport are evident, but generally less elaborate. An open communication of the lumen of the papilla with the haemocoel was not detected. The papilla is connected with the rest of the rectal epithelium by junctional cells (“Verbindungszellen”). Neurosecretory terminals are present at the base of the papillae. The possible ways of fluid transport are discussed and the structure of theThrips papilla is compared with that in other insects.

Notes: Summary The scincid lizardTiliqua rugosa possesses a large external nasal gland which is located intraconchally. Highly ramified tubules, imbedded primarily in the periphery of the gland, unite to form collecting ducts which empty into a short excretory canal. The diameter of the tubules increases progressively from 30Μ. at the distal extremity of the gland to over 200Μ at the level of the collecting ducts. The intraglandular portion of the excretory canal is often dilated to form an ampulla. The thickness of the epithelium increases from 12Μ at the level of the tubules to 25–30Μ in the excretory canal. The excretory canal is lined with an epidermal epithelium close to the point where it enters the vestibule. In all the rest of the gland the tubules are lined with two cell types: large, typical muco-serous cells and “striated” cells. At the distal end of the tubules the “striated” cells are narrow and poorly differentiated and alternate more-or-less regularly with the muco-serous cells. The relative proportion of these “striated” cells increases progressively, as does their size, as one moves proximally down the tubule. In the gland as a whole the “striated” cells are approximately twice as numerous as the muco-serous cells but, due to their smaller size, they occupy less than one third of the tubular volume. Electron microscopy of the “striated” cells ofTiliqua rugosa revealed the presence of extensive lateral interdigitations and expansions of the basal cytoplasmic membrane, anatomical specialisations which are normally indicative of active salt transport. These modifications are less marked however than in the external nasal glands of the lizardsLacerta muralis andVaranus griseus, which do not appear to function as salt glands. In addition there are few mitochondria present, although they are of large size. The combination of these ultrastructural features, plus the fact that the “striated” cells are intermixed with muco-serous cells in the tubules, makes it most unlikely that the external nasal gland ofTiliqua rugosa is capable of elaborating an hyperosmotic fluid. What is more, this has never been conclusively demonstrated in this species in physiological studies. The progressive specialisation of the “striated” cells from the distal to the proximal section of the tubules poses the problem of the origin and differentiation of this cell type. A review of results obtained from the study ofTiliqua rugosa and other species of lizards shows that the nature of the relationship between structure and function of the external nasal gland is far from clear. The existence of “salt glands”, capable of excreting hyperosmotic solutions, is invariably linked with the presence in the gland of well-developed “striated segments” composed almost entirely of cells possessing extensive interdigitations of the lateral membranes. Amongst terrestrial lizards, nasal salt glands are usually found in herbivorous species and they are primarily adapted to the extrarenal excretion of potassium ions. The problem for carnivorous species is more often that of an excess of sodium rather than potassium ions and with the possible exceptionAcanthodactylus species, functional nasal salt glands have not been demonstrated in terrestrial carnivores, despite the presence in some cases of well-developed “striated segments” in the gland having a similar structure to those found in herbivores. In humid regions, carnivorous lizards probably never require extrarenal excretory mechanism and in arid regions their survival is assured by their capacity to tolerate hypernatraemia when confronted with excessive salt loads. Salt glands capable of eliminating sodium ions to any extent have only been described in two littoral species, an herbivorous iguanid and a carnivorous varanid. Unfortunately the structure of their respective nasal glands has not yet been described and their further study would be desirable.

Notes: Summary The embryo ofOncopeltus fasciatus forms a typical secondary dorsal organ (SDO). It develops after katatrepsis from the contracting serosa, the cells of which decrease in diameter but increase considerably in height. After 66 h, the SDO represents a protrusion of the serosal epithelium above the head and is then reduced to a disc-shaped formation, which sinks into the yolk, where it disintegrates after 80 h. During its typical expression, between 66 and 78 h, the SDO shows a zonal arrangement of its cell organelles. The nucleus, which is located in the basal cell region, has a very irregular outline and includes several nucleoli and globular inclusion bodies. Rough and smooth ER are well developed around the nucleus and suggest the involvement of the organ in protein secretion as well as in lipid metabolism. Electron-lucent vacuoles and electron-dense granules, sometimes enclosed in the vacuoles, accumulate in the apical cell region, and are obviously extruded into the peripheral (extraembryonic) space. The formation of intercellular clefts and delicate cytoplasmic extensions facing the yolk and microvilli facing the periphery evidence a transporting function of the epithelium. Blisters intercalated in extended junctional complexes between apical cell regions point to the transport of solutes. Because of the similarities of the processes observed in the SDO and in Malpighian tubules of larvae, an excretory function of the SDO is suggested. Final products of yolk and embryo are apparently transported to the extraembryonic space, where they accumulate during embryogenesis. Phylogeny, relationship, and function of the different embryonic glands in Arthropoda (primary and secondary DO and pleuropodia) are discussed.

Notes: Summary Biomphalaria (Australorbis) glabrata has a preradular as well as a postradular pocket and a collostyle hood. The odontophore cartilage does not consist of cartilage, but of cells which are characterized by numerous vesicles, mitochondria, and muscle fibres in the periphery; other cells contain large amounts of glycogen. The odontoblasts are characterized by unusually long microvilli which reach into the newly formed radula teeth. The formation of a tooth begins above the posterior odontoblast which has at first only short microvilli. The tooth seems to be raised by the extension of these microvilli. Microfibrils are formed in the electron dense material which is present in the small space between the microvilli; probably these microfibrils contain chitin. Obviously the interlacing of the bundles of microfibrils in a tooth corresponds with the complex arrangement of the long microvilli during formation of the tooth. Finally the microvilli are integrated into the newly formed tooth and radular membrane. Several odontoblasts join to form a single tooth. The radular membrane is secreted mainly or exclusively by the most anterior odontoblast. The cells of the superior epithelium surround the radula teeth. The so-called “secretion cavity” seems to be an artifact. Electron dense material is present between teeth and superior epithelium which is not apposed to but seems to be integrated into the teeth. The cells of the inferior epithelium show considerable secretory activity; the secretions seem to be incorporated into radular teeth and membrane.

Notes: Summary The young recent cassiduloidEchinolampas depressa has a lantern and teeth which are fully developed, but which never function because they disappear completely after metamorphosis. The lantern resembles morphologically that of the clypeastroid family Fibulariidae. The teeth are built-up of tooth elements, which have small primary plates, large lateral plates, and a cluster of prisms, and they are nearly identical to the teeth of fibulariids. In addition, the fine structure of teeth from liassic fossils was analyzed. This was the first investigation ever of the microstructure of fossil echinoid teeth. The examined teeth were well preserved, and proved to have nearly the same structure as the teeth ofEchinolampas. The results of this investigation prove that teeth of cassiduloid-clypeastroid structure were already in existence in the Liassic. Using micro structure as a comparative basis the author distinguishes between echinoid teeth of the “clypeastroid type” (present in Cassiduloida, Clypeastroida, and in all probability in Oligopygoida), and those of the “regular type” (present in all recent regular echinoids and in all probability in Holectypoida). The well-known aulodont, stirodont, etc., types of teeth and lanterns belong to the regular type. Teeth of the regular type are highly complex in structure, and certainly cannot be the result of evolutionary convergence. From the morphological point of view the clypeastroid type is the simpler one, and there is no indication that it is the result of secondary simplification. For this reason the anatomical features of the clypeastroid type of echinoid teeth are considered to be the more primitive. Contrary to the opinion of several authors, this author maintains that echinoids possessing a masticatory apparatus of the clypeastroid type are by no means descendents of stirodont ancestors.

Notes: Summary Numerous short ciliary structures are described in immature spermatozoa of a marine catenulid,Retronectes atypica (Doe and Rieger, 1977). These ciliary structures are associated with spherical bodies consisting of concentric flat vesicles. Since such spherical bodies have been described for several other species of Retronectidae (Sterrer and Rieger, 1974), it is assumed that the multiple ciliary structures may be a characteristic of the whole family. Nuclear morphology and other cytological structures are described for mature and immature stages of spermatogenesis. The finding of these ciliary structures is thought to underline the unique and isolated position of the Catenulida within the Platyhelminthes and the lower worms as a whole.

Notes: Summary The ocellus of a synaptid holothurian,Opheodesoma spectabilis, is composed of sensory and supportive cells and underlain by numerous bundles of tentacular nerve fibers. Pigment cells in the tentacular nerve envelope the ocellus. A sensory cell is divided into three parts: an apical part from which a single cilicum and numerous microvilli arise, a slender middle part, and an enlarged basal part that contains an oval nucleus and gives rise to an axon. The axonemes in the cilia show varying degrees of remodelling. The following changes result from exposure to light: the microvilli become shorter and irregularly arranged; plasmalemmal invaginations engulf the microvilli; coated vesicles of varying appearances and membranous fragments become abundant; microtubules are less evident in the apical part; and small flat vesicles appear along the plasma membrane in the middle part. The evolution of photosensory cells and membrane turnover are discussed.

Notes: Summary 1. Studying speciation processes ofGyratrix hermaphroditus 16 populations from 15 little ponds in Lower Saxonia were examined. 2. Basically two types of life-cycles are recognized in populations ofGyratrix. Polyvoltine cycles from April to October and sometimes over the winter months occurred in eurytherm populations. Dormance periods are facultative. The life-cycles of the psychrophileous populations are univoltine from February or March to May or June. A period of 9 months or more is survived in the egg capsules by a diapause. 3. In morphology the form and largeness of the egg capsules and the male cuticular-organs is significant different in small, medium-size and large specimens. The chromosome-set of a medium-size population is tetraploid with 2n=8,n=4. Numbers of chromosomes of all other populations are 2n=4,n=1. 4. Reproductive isolation exists between five populations. ThereforeGyratrix is considered as a group of closely related species forming at least five sibling species. The range of two populations is unknown. The biota of the sibling species are isolated ponds or ponds in the neighbourhood one to another. In one case two species are living sympatric in the same pond. 5. The origin of the speciation processes are refered to autopolyploidy, ecogeographical differenciation and change of chromosome structure. Primarily the reproductive isolation is caused by a sexual substance, inhibiting copulation. It is different in all populations. 6. The supposition pointing out further sibling species from marine, brackish and limnetic biota renounced us to give a taxonomic term. The species groupGyratrix hermaphroditus is provisionally carried on under this name.

Notes: Summary The ultrastructure of the epithelium on the oral surface of the tentacles ofOwenia fusiformis has been studied by light and electron microscopy. Unspecialized monociliated cells are the dominant cell type of the epithelium; however, biciliated epidermal cells, monociliated mucous cells and non-ciliated cells are also present. In all of the ciliated cells each cilium is provided with a diplosomal basal body and two striated rootlets. The cytological features of this unspecialized epithelium strongly resemble those of similar epithelia in the Phoronida, Brachiopoda and Hemichordata. So far,O. fusiformis is the only polychaete known to possess an unspecialized monociliated epidermis. Other characters ofOwenia are also mentioned. The relationship between the nervous system and the epidermal cells on the tentacles is examined. It is proposed thatOwenia should assume an important role in discussions of the phylogeny of the Polychaeta.

Notes: Summary The sound producing organ ofTrichopsis vittatus consists of a very enlarged part of the M. adducor superficialis. It is found at the inside of the cleithrum, which is attached to the fourth and fifth pectoral fin ray by two tendons, thickened to elastic pads. These pads are situated above an elevation formed by the base of the second and third fin rays. In experiments it is demonstrated how the double-pulsed tone bursts are generated by the pads snapping over this elevation during the contraction of the sonic muscle. If the sonic muscle is cut, the sound production ceases. If one of the two tendons is cut, the former double-pulsed tone burst turns into a single-pulsed burst.

Notes: Summary The paired copulatory stylets of the hermaphroditicMicrophthalmus cf.listensis are hard cone-shaped tubes with a syringe-like distal opening and a cuff-like lower edge and surround the external openings of the two ejaculatory ducts. They each lie in a deeply invaginated epidermal fold and are attached basally to an elongated muscle bulb, which is composed of a number of disc-like muscle cells. A prominent gland is situated behind the stylets. Transfer of sperm into the partner occurs probably by mechanical hypodermal injection. Hereby, the epidermal folds are protruded as small sacks, pulling out the stylets. The development of the entire male genital apparatus occurs in autumn when the animals have about 16 setigerous segments. During this differentiation, two elongated papillae arise. They consist of various well defined cells, some of which border a central ciliated lumen. The stylet tubes arise by transformation of the at first normal cuticle of these papillae into a hard electron-dense wall.

Notes: Summary The structure of the eyespots of the free-swimming larva ofPolystoma integerrimum (Monogenea, Polystomatidae) was studied by electron microscopy. Each eyespot is rhabdomeric in type, with one cup-shaped supportive cell and one sensory cell. The supportive cell is characterized by concentric rows of platelets, separated by 120 nm. This entirely new structure in a platyhelminth acts like a concave mirror of a telescope in concentrating the light. Moreover, at each interface of lamellae of platelets, light is amplified. InPolystoma, the light concentration occurs by reflection whereas it occurs by refraction in all other platyhelminths studied up to now. Among the monogenean Trematodes, all the Polystomatidae appear to present this reflecting system.

Notes: Summary The structure of the gonopodium ofHeterandria formosa was studied by light- and electron microscopy (scanning and transmission EM). In adults the number of the analis fin rays varies between 8 and 11. The anterior part of the fin which is extremely reduced in size, contains rays I and II, the median part modified for use in copulation is stabilized by rays III to V, whereas the posterior part revealing ordinary size, contains rays VI to VIII/IX/X/XI. Ray III is the main supporting element of the gonopodium. The anterior ramus of ray IV bears proximal serrae and is elongated, thus forming a terminal hook of genus specifity. InHeterandria formosa the suspensorium consists of 4 gonapophyses, 9 interhemal spines and a number of baseosts. The peripheral part of the dermis of the gonopodium is made up by a multilayered epithelium. Most of the epithelial cells are extremely toothed with numerous desmosomes. Microridges of the outer cells form a meandrian surface pattern. There are few free nerve endings within the epithelium. A basement membrane of varying thickness separates the epithelium from an underlying thin layer of connective tissue which surrounds the central bone tissues of the gonopodium. Blood vessels and nerve fiber bundles are embedded in the bone tissue. The endothelial cells of the afferent capillaries form thin lamellae which are overlapped in part. The contacts of the endothelial cells are made up by gap or tight junctions. The functional morphology of the gonopodium is discussed corresponding to the anatomical and ultrastructural findings.

Notes: Summary 1. Argulus foliaceus possesses two specialized areas on the ventral side of its carapace. They are arranged in a smaller field and in a greater one lying behind the former. 2. The fields of the carapace are limited by narrow cells. They are covered by a strongly sclerotized cuticle. These cells are surrounded by pigment cells. 3. The field cells are characterized by apical and basal infoldings and vesicles originating from its blind endings. Infoldings and mitochondria work together as mitochondrial pump. 4. Nucleus, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, and microtubules are orientated in the same direction as the axis of the cell. 5. In the field cells detectable amounts of sodium and chloride ions are histochemically localized. Sodium ions are found between the microridges and scattered in the ground cytoplasm. Chloride ions will be found too in the microridges and furthermore in the basal infoldings. 6. ATPase-activity can be localized histochemically in the apical microridges.

Notes: Summary Ciliary gliding is a type of locomotion in which an animal moves on a secreted layer of mucus, propelled by the beating of cilia. It is characteristic of small, soft-bodied invertebrates and has received little attention. However, the interactions between cilia and mucous secretions involved in ciliary gliding are similar to, if not the same as, those in other muco-ciliary systems such as the mammalian lung or the ctenidia of bivalves. In this paper, the ultrastructure of the ciliated and mucous secreting cells on the locomotor sole of two archiannelids (Protodrilus sp. andNerilla antennata) and two turbellarians (Polychoerus carmelensis andMonocelis cincta) is described and discussed in terms of a proposed mechanism of ciliary gliding.

Notes: Summary The ultrastructure of trichobothria and normal mechanoreceptive bristles has been studied in Microcaeculus steineri delamarei. In spite of great differences in the outer appearance the inner structure of both kinds of sensilla is quite similar: In each case two dendrites are linked to the hair base by a system of fibrils. Therefore it may be suggested that two different directions may be distinguished by each sensillum. Apparently, the bristles may be bent in every direction, but at least the trichobothria show two favorite directions of bending. Certainly the oval shape of the hair base is the morphological reason for this pecularity. The fibrillar arrangement attaching the tubular bodies to the hair base deserves special interest concerning possible movements of the tubular bodies during the bending process of the sensory bristle. Some cytochemical studies are under investigation.

Notes: Summary Argulus foliaceus was put into water containing different amounts of sodium chloride. Various concentrations caused changes in the ultrastructure of the fields of the carapace. Very crude structural changes occured, when Argulus was put without any adaptation into distilled water or into a solution of 1% sodium chloride. When the animals were allowed to adapt slowly up to a final concentration of 0.6% sodium chloride by several steps, only small changes in ultrastructure were observed, mainly reduction of the apical cell surface, appearing of multivesicular bodies, and numerous patches of glycogen in the basal cell parts.

Notes: Summary The tympanic organ of the Cicadidae is situated on the abdominal ventral side stretching inside a cuticular capsule, which is formed as an irregular cone-shaped protuberance on both sides of the second abdominal segment. Near the hearing capsule lies the drum in a cavity spanned perpendicularly with regard to the longitudinal axis of the animal. The drum forms a narrow and flat process reaching in the hearing capsule. The tympanic organ is attached to this cuticular body. On the other side the organ is fixed at the integument of the distal part of the hearing capsule. There are two protuberances, to which the scolopidia are fastened. The tympanic organ consists of about 1300 scolopidia each composed of the following distinct cells: the sense cell, which distally bears the cilium, the proximal attachment cell, the scolopale cell, the cap cell, and a distal attachment cell. Proximal and distal attachment cells mediate the attachment of the organ at the epidermal cells of the cuticle. Numerous folds and much desmosomes associated with microtubules fasten the cells at each other so that the organ is spanned very tightly between the two cuticular bodies.

Notes: Summary Skeleton and muscles of the first and second abdominal segment of severalRaphidia species,Inocellia crassicornis Schumm. (Raphidioptera),Stalis lutaria L.,Sialis fuliginosa Pict. (Megaloptera),Osmylus fulvicephalus Scop. (Neuroptera=Planipennia) are described in detail and compared with some other megalopteran and neuropteran insects. The basal abdominal segments are slightly reduced and provided with a rich musculature. Besides plesiomorphous characters, which attest to the primitive state of the whole group, there were found some apomorphous characters. Though these characters do not permit decisive conclusions about the phytogeny of the neuropteroidean orders they are systematically important. The hypothesis of the monophyly of the neuropteroidean orders (Neuroptera + Raphidioptera + Megaloptera), hitherto almost completely based on symplesiomorphous characters only, is supported now by some presumably derivative synapomorphous states: (1) a transversal suture on the notum of the first abdominal segment which is homologous to the metathoracic scutoscutellar suture, (2) an always medianly divided postnotum of the metathorax, (3) a transversal sternal suture of the second abdominal sternum, (4) a connection of the metafurca with the lateral part of the antecosta of the first abdominal segment by a muscle (M 1) or a tendonlike or sclerotized ligament, (5) a ventral spiracular muscle (M26) between the tip of the metafurca arms and the ventral area of the first abdominal spiracle. All derived characters, held in common between Raphidioptera and Neuroptera and seemingly indicating a relationship, are found in some other insect orders too. Thus they are not or almost surely not synapomorphous. These characters are: (1) a transepimeral suture, (2) a cryptonephridial arrangement of the larval malpighian tubules, (3) the “distance segregation” or “distance pairing” of the sex chromosomes, (4) a spermatheca provided with two ducts, a ductus receptaculi connecting the bursa copulatrix with the spermatheca, and a ductus seminalis connecting the spermatheca with the oviductus communis. Some other derived characters may indicate a sister-group relationship between Raphidioptera and Megaloptera,viz. (1) a postepimeron (causing a lateral stiffened immovable connection between the thorax and abdomen in Corydalus and the Raphidioptera) with a cranial epimeral apophysis (an enlargement of the antecosta lateralis), which is connected with the metafurca by a ligament or a skeleton bridge derived from a furcoantecostal-muscle (M1), (2) a reduced framelike tergite of the second abdominal segment, whose reduction begins in the center of the sklerite, (3) a polyintersegmental tergal muscle (M27) (p. 235), (4) telotrophic ovarioles in a special condition (p. 239), (5) the imaginale gula; 6. the cleaning behaviour. At least the first character ist most probable a true synapomorphy because of its complex condition — almost excluding convergence — and its strict limitation to Raphidoptera and Megaloptera.

Notes: Summary The growth of the coronal skeleton is studied by tetracycline labeling. None of the existing hypotheses on the growth of the sea urchin test is verified. For all plates the ratio of increase was measured individually at the different sutures.All coronal plates grow in a latitudinal and meridional direction. Latitudinal growth exceeds meridional growth, but new plates continually being added at the edge of the apical system. The adaptical plates gradually change their position to ambital and adorai. It is a relative shift, because after metamorphosis thereno re sorption of plates occurs at the margin of the peristome. Ambulacral plates (A plates) are built up of several parts. In unfinished A plates the last partial plate is still growing independently, while the others are already growing as a unit. The height depends on the number of their parts. The ratio of increase decreases in a peristomial direction. Contrary to interambulacral plates (IA plates) the greatest ratio of increase occurs 2–3 plates apicad of the ambitus. There are more A plates than IA plates. IA plates bordering of three A plates become higher to the adradial suture to compensate the increase of the intermediate A plate. There is a negative allometric relation between the diameters of the peristome and ambitus. The peristome issolely expanded by lateral growth of the basicoronal plates. There is on the basicoronal IA plates, an unpaired perignathic elementperhaps homologous to the primordial plate (said by former authors to be totally resorbed during metamorphosis). This perignathic element blocks the interradial growth of the basicoronal IA plates. The perignathic element and the basicoronal IA plates grow as a unit. The natural growth lines of the plates are not considered to be annular rings. The results of this investigation can be carried over to the mode of coronal growth of other families (i.e., Arbaciidae, Cidaridae) only to a limited extent.

Notes: Summary The abdominal glands of six ponerine ants belonging to the tribe Ponerini were analysed:Leptogenys ocellifera (Roger),Leptogenys chinensis (Mayr),Diacamma sp.,Ponera coarctata (Latreille),Odontomachus haematodes (L.) andHarpegnathus saltator (Jerdon). A great variety of glands was found. An intersegmental complex gland is located between the sixth and seventh abdominal tergite in each species investigated. But size, arrangement of gland cells and shape of reservoir differ. In addition, representatives of the genusLeptogenys andH. saltator both have sternal intersegmental complex glands. InL. ocellifera andL. chinensis these glands are located between the fifth and sixth and also between the sixth and seventh abdominal sternite. InH. saltator one sternal gland is situated between the sixth and seventh abdominal sternite. In some species we found characteristical sculptures on the cuticle at the orifice of the well developed reservoirs of the glands. These sculptures could be interpreted as an enlarging of the surface of the cuticle or as a reservoir. Another type of gland cells are epithelial glandular cells. They form distinct layers on the seventh sternite inL. chinensis and on the sixth sternite inL. ocellifera. Tergo-sternal bunches of secretory cells were observed inDiacamma sp.,P. coarctata, H. saltator and inO. haematodes. A similar variety of glands was found associated with the sting apparatus in the gonostyli, at the membrane between the two oblong plates and at the membranous connections between the sting apparatus and the last abdominal segment. InDiacamma sp. two distinct glandular cells are located in the gonostylar sclerites, i.e. secretory cells, each drained by a cuticular ductule and epithelial glandular cells. In the two representatives of the genusLeptogenys, inO. haematodes and inP. coarctata only the first type of gland cell was found. In these species as well as inH. saltator the epidermal cells of the gonostylar sclerites form different states of transition from degenerated epithelial cells to glandular epithelial cells. InH. saltator there are no secretory cells with a cuticular ductule in the gonostyli. Likewise, large paired complexes of gland cells were found at the base of two genostylar sclerites inH. saltator and inO. haernatodes. Though less developed, gland cells of the latter type are inDiacamma sp., P. coarctata and inL. chinensis also located at the base of the gonostyli. InDiacamma sp. the epidermal cells of the membrane connecting the two gonostyli do have secretory function. In the other species investigated they are less developed, and a secretory function cannot be considered certain. In each species investigated ductules of gland cells also open dorsolaterally into the sting chamber. Furthermore inDiacamma sp.P. coarctata, O. haematodes and inH. saltator, ductules of gland cells also open laterally and, except inO. haematodes, latero-ventrally into the membranous connection between the sting apparatus and the last abdominal segment.

Notes: Summary 1. The oenocytes of the larval generation of Tenebrio stick to the lateral tracheal trunks in a narrow chord. They do not increase their number during post-embryonic development, and therefore become polyploid. They are still present in 8-day-old adults; thus a degeneration within metamorphosis does not occur. 2. The following ultrastructural features are typical of oenocytes: a well developed ATER which allows only little room for the cytoplasma between the tubuli. Mitochondria are very numerous, but derived ones could not be observed. There are several free ribosomes sometimes adjoining endoplasmic reticulum to give rough surfaced profiles of ER. A most striking characteristic of the oenocytes of Tenebrio is the great amount of lipofuscin granules which reach their maximum 2 days after molting and are thereafter reduced. At least in the pupa an accumulation of granules take place. One way of degradation runs form scattering to a final exocytosis through the numerous enfoldings of the basal cell membrane. Distinct Golgi areas could not be found within the larval period, but were observed within the pupa and adult period, though very seldom. Acid phosphatases for the destruction of cell particles in autophagic vacuoles become organized in microbody-like structures directly in the tubuli of the ATER, and are transported to the vacuoles. 3. In contrast to other steroid hormone-producing cells there is no synchronization evident within the molting cycle. Also lipid droplets and glycogen rosetts, as a rule characteristics of a series of activations, are not to be observed. The only sign of cell activation is the occurrence of rough surfaced ER-profiles following a reduction of volume. A striking parallel exists between the titer of molting hormones and the number of vacuolated cells induced by a hypoosmolar fixative.

Notes: Summary The apical sensory organ on the antenna ofMetoponorthus was studied by scanning and transmission electron microscopy. It consists of a tuft of very short terminal hairs which prolongs a central body and two long lateral hairs which are articulated on the central body of the sensory organ. Hairs from the terminal tuft are innervated by 4 to 12 bipolar neurons. The dendritic cilia proceed through the axial body and then enter the lumen of hairs without branching. Dendrites in each hair communicate with environment through a rather wide terminal opening. It is suggested that some dendrites are mechanoreceptive. Scale-like cuticular structures protect the terminal part of the hairs, on the inner side that is not exposed to outer stimuli. The two long lateral hairs are innervated by 5 bipolar neurons: 4 dendrites enter the hair lumen while one, mechanoreceptive, terminates in the socket membrane. The fine structure of this apical sensory organ corresponds to that of known contact chemoreceptors in other Arthropods. A comparison is made with known chemo-receptors in marine and terrestrial Crustacea. In terrestrial forms it can be observed that the hairs become shorter. On the other hand the hair surfaces which are not exposed to outer stimuli show a thickened cuticule. In the terrestrial IsopodMetoponorthus (studied in the present work) the very short terminal hairs barely project past the central body. The development of the cuticular structures at the tip of the hairs and the tendancy of the hairs to be integrated into a single organ (central body of the sensory organ) represent so many adaptations for protection and reduction of evaporation.

Notes: Summary The paired testes of the spider miteTetranychus urticae are divided in a part producing germ cells and a secretory portion with a vast lumen. The secretory part is tubular and is connected to a vesicula seminalis that begins with paired pieces and then becomes unpaired. The penis is composed of two different parts: an evagination of the body wall that is penetrated by the ejaculatory duct and a ventral cuticular invagination the proximal part of which is an insertion for protractor muscles. The ultrastructures of the male genital tract and of the receptaculum seminis of the female are described in detail. The germinal epithelium is built up of a multinuclear somatic cell which envelops the germ cells. The spermiogenesis is characterized by the following features: invagination of the plasma membrane, degeneration of cell organelles, reduction in size and condensation of nucleus and cytoplasm. The germ cells lack flagellum and aerosome. The sperms leave the germ producing part of the testis with roundish shape, the invaginations — now pinched off the cell membrane — are to be seen as peripherally located vesicles. The chromatin is condensed, a nuclear envelope is absent. Mitochondria, a Golgi apparatus and ribosomes are reduced. In the receptaculum seminis the sperms are of irregular shape, they bear finger-shaped processes. Below the cell membrane numerous tubules are to be found.

Notes: Summary 1. The skeleton of segments VIII, IX and X of the female abdomen is described in 71 species of Adephaga and 13 of Polyphaga. Moreover in nearly 45 of these animals the musculature is studied. 2. In the most primitive case the abdomen of Coleoptera consists of at least 10 segments. 3. With few exceptions segment IX is invaginated into segment VIII in all Coleoptera studied. In almost all cases coxosternum VIII is retracted into the region of sternum VII; tergum VIII is invaginated into the region of tergum VII mostly in part, but sometimes completely or not at all. 4. It is possible to homologisize all elements of the outer female genital organs of the Coleoptera studied with elements of the basic plan of Pterygota. 5. In some Coleoptera the genital appendage of segment VIII is still visible. Within segment IX gonocoxa and stylus (third valvula) are preserved. In many Polyphaga the terminal segment of the stylus is developed in the form of a palpus. In all Adephaga the terminal segment of the stylus is fused with the gonocoxa or reduced. The second gonapophyses do not exist in Coleoptera. The gonangulum is fused with tergum IX. 6. In Adephaga and Polyphaga the gonocoxa is divided into a cranial and a caudal part. Probably the caudal part is homologous to the basic segment of the stylus. 7. The terminal, dorsal plate of the abdomen consists of tergum IX and X in Adephaga and Polyphaga. In most cases tergum IX and X are fused. In the basic plan of Adephaga tergum IX is divided in to two lateral plates, which cover the flanks of segment IX. In some Coleoptera a rest of sternum X is preserved. 8. The gonocoxapophysealmuscle of segment VIII is retained in all Adephaga and some Polyphaga. The two gonocoxotergalmuscles of segment IX exist in all Adephaga and some Polyphaga. 9. In some Adephaga and Polyphaga intertergal- and intersternalmuscles between segment IX and X are present. 10. The construction of the outer genital organs in Rhysodidae seems to be very primitive within the Adephaga. 11. Making use of the synapomorphic characters, which have been found within the terminal abdominal segments, the following phylogenetic conclusions may be drawn: a) The Cicindelidae constitute a monophyletic group. Within the Cicindelidae the Megacephalini represent a paraphyletic group. b) Trachypachini + Metriini + Paussini + Elaphrini + Omophronini + Opisthiini + Nebriini + Notiophilini + Scaritini + Hydradephaga constitute a monophyletic group. c) Carabini + Cychrini + Pamborini + Siagonini constitute a monophyletic group. d) The Harpalinae (sensu Ganglbauer, 1892; Crowson, 1967) represent a monophyletic group. e) Galeritini + Anthiini + Graphopterini + Corsyrini + Mormolycini + Pseudomorphini may be considered as a monophyletic group. Within this group Anthiini + Graphopterini + Corsyrini consist a monophyletic group; the Corsyrini are more closely related to the Graphopterini than to the Anthiini. Next relatives of the Mormolycini are the Pseudomorphini. Anthiini + Graphopterini + Corsyrini represent the sister-group of Mormolycini + Pseudomorphini. The phylogenetic conclusions must not be considered as final, because they are drawn only by means of characters of the terminal segments of the abdomen.

Notes: Summary The growth of the coronal plates was studied by tetracycline labeling. The compound ambulacral plates (A-plates) of the arbacioid type are secondary triads, developed by the addition of a simple plate (adorad demi-plate) to a diad (primary plate and adapical demi-plate). Adapically the adorad demi-plate is growing independently from the diad. The ambulacra are narrow in the adapical region but orad the ambitus they are widened to phyllodes. The A-plates grow at all sutures, but the ratio of increase is greatest at the adradial suture. — The interambulacral plates (IA-plates) grow mainly in lateral direction. The ratio of interradiad to adradiad increase is 9∶1 (inParacentrotus the ratio is 1 ∶ 1). — InArbacia the peristome is formed by the primordial plates. The unpaired primordial IA-plate (pIA) blocks the interradial growth in the peristome. The primordial IA-plate ofArbacia is homologeous to the “perignathic element” (pG) inCoelopleurus andParacentrotus. Contrary to Lovén (1892) and Gordon (1926) the primordial plates are preserved in many regular sea urchins! — The primordial A-plates (pA) are paired. Each primordial A-plate forms an auricle (Au) and a lateral “ambulacral process” (aF). The ambulacral process is sheathed by the primordial IA-plate. InA. punctulata the primordial IA-plate is partly resorbed and the ambulacral process switches over to the next IA-plate. — In the ambitus the plates are mostly thickened near their adoral suture: Therefore the older (labeled) parts become oblique within their plates. The “ontogenetic variation in c-axis orientation” is a consequence of this.

Notes: Summary Ephydatia fluviatilis ingests paniculate and dissolved food substances through the incurrent canal system into the “open” mesenchymal space. Particulate food, especially bacteria, is caught by the choanocytes of the flagellated chamber which form a filter-like structure, and phagocytosed by choanocytes and amoebocytes. The capacity of lysosomal digestion in the amoebocytes exceeds that of other phagocytotic cells. Both choanocytes and amoebocytes are able to transfer their phagosomes to other food-searching cells. Excrements released into the mesenchymal space are transported through the endopinacocytes into the excurrent canal system. Dissolved proteins are pinocytosed by the choanocytes at the inner face of the collar base and accumulated in food vacuoles. These are exocytosed at the basal side of the choanocytes and in turn endocytosed and digested by amoebocytes. Residual bodies with contents of lamellate structure are defecated in the same way via the endopinacocytes of the excurrent canals.

Notes: Summary 1 The egg has about ten micropyles around the forepole. Apart from that the surface is rather smooth, without a pattern, and covered by a wax layer. The chorion is composed of several layers, which are described. It shows adaptations to dry environment. The chorion as a “maternal cuticle” is discussed. 2 A vitelline membrane surrounds the oocyte below the chorion. It consists of three laminae: an electron lucent one between two moderately dense ones. 3 The serosal cells have presumably a dual function. Strongly developed rough ER and pronounced nucleoli point to the manufacture of proteins, probably enzymes which participate in the liquifaction of the yolk.During development the serosa withdraws from the vitelline membrane and secretes a heterogenous product — a proteinaceous (?) fluid, dense granules and lipid droplets — into the peripheral space. Dense granules are derived from the yolk and transported through the cells without morphological alterations, whereas taken up lipids are apparently metabolized. These processes are interpreted as excretory activities, which shall keep the yolk free of waste substances. 4 The same products as in the peripheral space — except for the lipid droplets — are found in the amnion cavity. They are likewise considered as excretory products which are primarily deposited by the germ band cells. The amnion may serve to keep the material in a defined area separate from the nutrition.The appearance of orientated microtubules during katatrepsis may be indicative for an active participation in embryonic movements. 5 Pronounced ultrastructural changes occur during transition from ectoderm to epidermis. Ectodermal tissue is characterized by the presence of electron lucent vesicles and free ribosomes. It also secretes the “first embryonic cuticle” (“Cut. I”), a trilaminar membrane which probably represents a cuticulin layer. Besides ectoderm and several ectodermal organ anlagen also the amnion forms this membrane. (Endocrine glands are not yet active.) In this context some aspects of differentiation and determination are discussed. The embryonic epidermis contains no electron lucent vesicles, but many pigment granules. It secrets two more “embryonic cuticles” (“Cut. II and III”) which have the structure of a typical larval one prior to ecdysis (endocuticle=procuticle). A wax layer, however, is already present. “Cut. III” represents the first larval cuticle.

Notes: Summary 1) The present article deals with the morphology of the olfactory organ ofLampris guttatus (Brünnich) and its functional correlation with the neighbouring lacrymal bone and the jaw apparatus in respiration. 2) The nasal cavity consists of a rather tube-like atrium, a flat ethmoidal nasal groove and a somewhat spherical nasal pouch. 3) The olfactory tissue only covers a small area and forms a semicircle of rounded laminae lying in the atrium beneath the paired and minute nostrils. 4) The dermal bridge separating the nostrils has no vertical sail. The water current inside the nasal cavity therefore is exclusively effected by a specific irrigation mechanism. 5) The lacrymal bone is rather moveably suspended from the neurocranium and shows functional connection with the jaw apparatus. Whenever the jaws are protruded or retracted the lacrymal bone is slightly rotated downwards resp. upwards. 6) By this slight rotation around its articulation with the lateroethmoid the lacrymal bone alternately indents and tightens the membraneous roof of the ethmoidal nasal groove in order to ventilate its cavity. 7) The lacrymal nasal pouch is ventilated by a joint facet formed of both mandibula and maxilla and by the lacrymal bone. 8) Experimental verification of the described ventilation mechanism by imitation of the supposed natural movement pattern showed that in adult specimens at least one tenth of the total volume of the nasal cavity is exchanged in the course of each respiration resp. irrigation cycle. 9) The olfactory organ ofLampris guttatus functionally is monotrematic; the water current flows inward through both nostrils simultaneously (aspiration) and flows out in the same manner (expiration). 10) The ventilation of the nasal cavity is comparable to the function of a pipette. Due to the rhythmic deformation of the ethmoidal nasal groove and the lacrymal nasal pouch only the rostral part of the atrium with the olfactory tissue is permanently irrigated by fresh water. Thus even slight movements of the jaw apparatus seem to be sufficient for an extensive olfactory control of the environment. 11) Comparison of the retina and olfactory tissue areas seemingly provesLampris guttatus to be a marked ‘ophthalmic’ fish. The presence of such an effective irrigation mechanism, however, may well indicate a considerable biological significance of its olfactory organ.

Notes: Summary The growth of the skeleton of the lantern of Aristotle is studied by tetracycline labeling in the stirodontArbacia lixula and in the camarodontParacentrotus lividus. The pyramids support and guide the teeth. They are built up by two demipyramids (Ki) which are heightened intensively especially apicad. The ratio of apicad/orad increase varies between 1,3 ∶ 1 and 4,3 ∶ 1. In the lateral direction the demipyramid grows mainly at the symphysis of the pyramid; in the radial direction it grows at its abaxial surface. The “growing center” of the demipyramid is eccentric. The orad top of the pyramid is exposed to a fixed end moment when the tooth scrapes. The growth of the lantern is accompanied by an increase in moment, and in proportion to this increasing stress the top of the pyramid is thickened at all its surfaces. The joints of the lantern are formed between epiphyses and rotulae. The articular surfaces are covered by polycristalline calcite. During growth the articular surfaces move apart. Polycristalline calcite can not to be transformed into monocristalline calcite, therefore the polycristalline cover of the articular surface is to be renewed and resorbed continually. The epiphysis has three eminences (Ci–C3) and a glenoid groove (Gl) at its perradial surface. During growth the epiphysis is thickened on its opposite surface. The large condylus C1 growth in the abaxial direction and its polycristalline cover is thickened. C2 and C3 are shifted adaxiad. Their delicate polycristalline covers are continually built up adaxiad and the old parts become resorbed. The rotulae have condyli (cond) and grooves (A1–A3) onboth sides. The rotula growths proportionally in laterad and in radiad directions, but in height the growth is only apicad. During growth the joints move apart in all directions, and their polycristalline cover is renewed continually. From the orad surface the oldest parts of the rotula are resorbed, including the polycristalline cover of the joints, which have become too small. By means of this unusual mode of growth the rotula and its articular surfaces are enlarged in correspondence to the growth of the epiphysis and its articular surfaces! In both species examined there are great differences in coronal growth, but their lanterns work and grow in a very similiar manner.

Notes: Summary Phase-contrast and electron microscopical investigations of the pancreatic appendages of the Ductus hepatopancreas in Sepioidea (Sepia officinalis L., Sepia elegans d'Orb.,Sepietta obscura Naef,Sepiola robusta Naef) of different age groups (newly hatched, juvenile and adult animals) show a basic conformity in the arrangement and ultrastructure of the organs in the species studied. The appendages are composed of two epithelia, which are separated by a blood sinus. They have a congruous polar structure marked by: a brush border, a basal folded labyrinth, a high content in mitochondria and dense bodies. The differences in the structure of both cellular layers and their morphological changes, which are related to age and nourishment, suggest that the inner epithelium lining the duct has a dual function, serving excretion and nutrient absorption. The rather flat outer epithelium, which faces the renal cavity, can be associated mainly with processes of osmoregulation and urine formation.

Notes: Summary Rhabdites are rod-shaped secretory products characteristic of the Turbellaria but also found in nemerteans, gastrotrichs and annelids. Their functions are poorly understood. The structure, synthesis and secretion of rhabdites were studied in one archiannelid (Protodrilus sp.), and three turbellarians (Alloioplana californica, Polycladida;Monocelis cincta, Alloeocoela;Polychoerus carmelensis, Acoela). InAlloioplana, Monocelis andPolychoerus the rhabdites are the only, or most common, secretory product released on the ventral locomotor sole and therefore they are thought to form the viscous mucus used in locomotion by ciliary gliding. InProtodrilus, rhabdites are released along the ventrolateral margin of the worm and are secreted only when the worm tries to move by ciliary gliding against strong water currents. It is proposed that the principal function of rhabdites in the worms studied, is adhesion.

Notes: Summary Pigmented spots have been implicated as potential photoreceptors in many bryozoan larvae which display phototactic behavior. Larvae ofScrupocellaria bertholetti, initially photopositive on release from the brood chambers, have a pair of identical posterolateral pigmented spots and a third morphologically different spot in the anteromedian line. The presumed photoreceptoral organelle in each is composed of numerous unmodified cilia which have the typical 9+2 arrangement of microtubules with electron-dense arms extending from thea-microtubule of each peripheral pair. The posterolateral pigmented spot is composed of two modified coronal cells and a basal sensory cell. Cilia arising from the apical part of this basal cell are aligned vertically. Densely packed pigment vesicles in the three cells form a shield that restricts light entry to one direction. The anteromedian pigmented spot is composed of four cells, two lateral and two posterior. Cilia of the opposing lateral cells are horizontally aligned, whereas cilia of the posterior cells are vertical and curve outward from the oral margin of the pigmented spot. Pigment vesicles are present in all four cells to form a complete shield. Extensions of the larval nervous system are in direct contact with the four cells of the anteromedian spot and the basal cells of the posterolateral spots. The posterolateral pigmented spots share structural and topological similarities with the pigmented spots ofBugula neritina, the only other supposed photoreceptors in lophophorates which have been studied at the ultrastructural level. It is not yet possible to homologize these potential photoreceptors with those of other groups.

Notes: Summary An investigation of the neurosecretory cells of three intertidal species of nemerteans,Procephalothrix spiralis (Coe, 1930) (Palaeonemertini),Lineus socialis (Leidy, 1855) (Heteronemertini) andAmphiporus lactifloreus (Johnston, 1828) (Hoplonemertini) was performed. Cell types are described and their distribution and relative abundance in the central nervous system reported. Neurosecretory cells were examined for diel activity and a relationship with sexual state. A change in the cytology of the neurosecretory cells was only noted with respect to the sexual state of the animal.

Notes: Summary Cobalt sulfide (CoS) staining, via axonal filling, was used to reveal the central projections of fibers of the tympanal nerves in the cricket prothoracic ganglion, as well as those of serially homonymous nerves in the mesothoracic and metathoracic ganglia. The main results are: 1. The branch of the anterior leg nerve termed the tympanal nerve (TB in Fig. 2) comprises a few motor fibers and many sensory axons, as do serially homonymous nerves in the two other thoracic segments. The sensory axons are those of sense cells in the tympanal organ (or the serially homonymous parts of the meso and metathoracic segments), the subgenual organ, the campaniform sensilla, and the tibial sensory hairs (Eibl, 1978). 2. On the basis of their branching and projections in the three thoracic ganglia, the sensory fibers of nerve TB can be classified into five types (Figs. 3–7). With respect to function, those of Type 5 can be regarded as auditory fibers (Fig. 10). They project only to the crescent-shaped region (Fig. 8), which represents the auditory neuropile in the strict sense, and are tuned to the carrier frequency of the calling song (Fig. 10B). It is characteristic of Types 1 to 4 that the fibers branch immediately after entering the ganglion (Figs. 3–6); typically, these branches run dorsally and may overlap with the lateral projections from the motor neuropile. In addition, the fibers of Types 2 to 4 project into the rostral and caudal margins of the auditory crescent (Figs. 4–6). 3. The similarity among the three thoracic ganglia with respect to sensory fiber types and projections (Fig. 11) suggests that serially homonymous sensory structures found in each of the leg-bearing segments resemble one another in their sensory projection areas and thus in their connectivity with other neural subsystems within the three thoracic ganglia. That ‘typical auditory nerve fibers’ occur in the meso and metathoracic segments, projecting exclusively to the crescent (Figs. 7 and 11), is anatomical evidence that auditory function need not be restricted to the first thoracic segment. 4. The stained leg motoneurons (Fig. 12), with axons that innervate the femur muscles, are distinguished by a dendritic field that must be assigned to the ventral part of the so-called sensorimotor integration zone (Altman, 1976). These fields are of lesser extent than, for example, those of the flight and singing motoneurons of meso and metathorax. 5. All the sensory and motor elements marked with CoS are bilateral and arranged with approximately mirror-image symmetry. Their central projections are restricted entirely to the ipsilateral half of the ganglion (Fig. 13).

Notes: Summary Three types of wall structure of blood vessels have been described. It consists of the following distinct layers, from exterior to interior: 1. “peritoneal” cells — thin basal lamina — some endothelial cells; 2. myoepithelial cells resting on a basal lamina — some endothelial cells; 3. circular and longitudinal muscle layers of myoepithelial cells — thick basal lamina — continuous endothelial lining.

Notes: Summary 1. These studies are concerned with the morphology of the lateral-line organ, the labyrinth, the gustatory apparatus and the nasal organs of the brotulid fishTyphliasina pearsei (Hubbs, 1938) and its relations to the mode of living of the cavernicolous fish. 2. The lateral-line system is highly developed and concentrated to the head. Especially the canal system of the head has passed through morphological alterations, which enable the fish to perceive very slight water displacements. By the way of connecting a pressure receiver (membran-covered boxes of the canal system) and a velocity receiver (cupula of the neuromast) there is made up a stimulus amplifier, being able to utilize very weak damming phenomena for orientation of space and to mediate specific signals of behaviour. The canal pores on the tip of the snout which are supported with current receptors preponderantly control the search of food. 3. In contrast to mechanoreceptors the sense organs of chemoreception are poorly developed. There are no taste buds on the body and neither on the filamentous pelvic fins. Nevertheless, we find a ramus lateralis accessorius, which resembles that of Gadidae with regard to the pattern of course and the morphological relationships to the fins. 4. The olfactory epithelium (3 lamellar folds) and the olfactorius are small in size. The bulbi olfactorii are directly situated in front of the telencephalon. 5. The labyrinth is characterized by a remarkably enlarged saccular otolith, which is supposed to be specialized in receiving sounds of low frequency.

Notes: Summary All parts of the male genital tract ofOpisthopatus cinctipes are involved with the formation of the Spermatophore. In the spermatocytes within the testes a Golgi apparatus produces electron dense secretory granules merging into one large droplet, which is extruded by the spermatid within the seminal vesicle. A second vesicular structure is formed near the plasmamembrane of the spermatids by a Golgi apparatus. It is presumably an acrosome vesicle and is extruded into the seminal vesicle, too. During the passage through the vasa efferentia secretory products and sperm-cells are separated from each other, the secretory products building an envelope around the spermatozoa. The epithelium of the vas deferens adds a multilayered outer covering. Some parts of the male genital tract bear cilia (vasa efferentia, vas deferens).

Notes: Summary To determine the degree of systematic affinity between branchiobdellids and lumbriculids, the ultrastructures of muscle and sperm cells ofBranchiobdella pentodonta andBythonomus lemani were studied. The structure ofBranchiobdella sperms is similar to that of the oligochaete model in terms of nucleus and the middle piece and to that of the hirudinean model in the peculiarity of the flagellum and acrosomal complex. Muscle ofBranchiobdella are very similar to those of the hirudineans. Muscles and sperms ofBythonomus lemani are practically identical to those of the tubificid model and are closely related to the other known oligochaetes.

Notes: Summary Twenty-one species of Porifera have been surveyed by light microscopy for the presence, form, and relative abundance of a little known cell type known as central cells. They are found to be present in fifteen of these species and occur in six morphologically recognizable forms. Their functional roles are reinterpreted in the light of new distributional and abundance data. The central cells of the siliceous ceractinomorph demosponges are common and intimately associated with the choanocyte population. They probably play an important role in control of water currents within individual choanocyte chambers to mediate cleaning of the outer chamber surfaces. The central cells of keratosan and tetractinomorph demosponges appear to represent stages in egestive processes of wandering mesenchyme cells.

Notes: Summary The ultrastructure of pericerebrally located ciliary aggregations inDicoelandropora atriopapillata Ax, 1956, andNotocaryoplanella glandulosa (Ax, 1951) is described. The intracellular aggregations consist of some 100 cilia, which are arranged in an alternating position without gaps. The distal parts of the cilia are interweaved. The aggregations are interpreted as photoreceptors.

Notes: Summary European populations of the turbellarianMesostoma ehrenbergii can produce two types of eggs according to a seasonal cycle. Subitaneous eggs (S eggs) are produced throughout the warm season and develop rapidly inside the parental uteri. They are meant to ensure a fast increase in the number of worms. Dormant eggs (D eggs) are produced during the warm season and are usually deposited in water at the death of the parent. They can hatch at the beginning of the next warm season and are, therefore, meant to ensure the survival of the population throughout the cold season, when adult worms are no longer present. S eggs are bounded by a thin, translucent covering which has a loose structure and is mainly proteinaceous in composition. These characteristics account for the functional role played by the S egg covering during embryonic development. The covering has, in fact, to be permeable to parental nutrients, and to keep pace, by stretching, with the enlargement of the embryo. By contrast, D eggs are bounded by a thick shell, presumably composed of a sclerotin, the precursors of which (polyphenols) are synthesized together with yolk in the vitelline cells. The shell has a smooth surface devoid of pores and has the function of isolating the developing D egg from the external environment.

Notes: Summary In the anterior head region ofMacrobiotus hufelandi four sensory regions were identified, and a detailed description of their fine structure follows. According to their position in the head region the sensory regions were called; I. anterio-lateral sensory field (ALSF), II. circum-oral sensory field (COSF), III. sub-oral sensory region (SOSR), and IV. pharyngeal organ (PO). The ALSF is innervated by three pairs of fiber bundles made up of dendrites. These bundles originate in the brain, pass foreward laterally, and widen, brushlike, under the epidermis. The COSF circumscribes the whole mouth opening. Under the specialized cuticle of the COSF, dendrites of three sensory cell types (type 1–3) terminate. The SOSR surrounds the anterior cuticular ring of the mouth cavity. It is also innervated by dendrites of three sensory cell types (type 1–3). The dendrites are arranged arround the mouth cavity in ten groups, each group being composed of three. Each dendritic triplet contains the sensory cell types 1–3. The PO is represented by four cuticular pockets. These are located at the transition between mouth cavity and mouth tube and innervated by 3–5 dendrites each. The cuticular pockets enclose considerable receptor lymph cavities which communicate with the lumen of the anterior foregut over multiple pores. With regard to the possible functions of the four sensory regions, the ALSF is discussed as a mechanoreceptive organ. The type 1 sensory cells in the COSF are suggested to be chemoreceptive and the type 2 sensory cells to serve as me-chanoreceptors in the COSF. For the sensory cells of type 1 in the SOSR, a movement of the anterior cuticular ring of the mouth cavity is considered to be adequate (mechanical) stimulus. The PO is thought to be a chemoreceptive sense organ.

Notes: Summary An enveloping sheath of the central nervous system and nerves of chilopods, hitherto called “outer neural lamella” actually consists of mostly myelinized cells supporting the neural lamella. Its fine structure was examinated in some geophilomorphs. Ganglia, connectives and thick trunk-nerves are enclosed by this myeline sheath totally. The myeline sheath is always formed by several cells; the myelinized parts of them are arranged spirally. The number of their “windings” and therefore also the number of the cells taking part in their construction depend on the region and its diameter: ganglia are distinguished by few “windings” — even missing sporadically —, connectives and nerves are distinguished by numerous ones. In connectives and nerves the number of “windings” is correlated with the thickness of the former. Corresponding to the construction of the myeline sheath by several cells, the pericarya of these cells are located above all within the “windings”. The nuclei are lens-shaped; the cytoplasm contains many spherical mitochondria, cytosomes of various form and density, prevailingly rough endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi fields and free ribosomes near the nucleus. Within the myelinized parts there is no cytoplasm, transparent dilatations between the membranes may be artificial. Cell membranes are outwardly supported by a glycocalyx. Between neighbouring glycocalices there is a haemocoele-cleft of variable width in which haemocytes are not seldom found squeezed in. Adjoining cells of the sheath overlap with their myelinized parts over a large area. Their glycocalyx disappeared and cell contacts have formed, recognizable in sections as septated desmosomes. The meaning of this myeline sheath is discussed.

Notes: Summary The following study should clear up the structures of the H-shaped profile found in the hairs of some shrews and show if it has a taxonomic signification. Therefore we studied the concerned hair structures by scanning electron microscopy in 8 genera. The special hair-shape, which is confined to the terminal segment of guard hairs, is found in the species of the following genera:Sorex, Neomys, Blarina andCryptotis, all members of the subfamily Soricinae. All the examined members of the subfamily Crocidurinae, i.e.Crocidura, Praesorex, Suncus andSylvisorex show a simple hair shape. The H-shaped hair characterizes the Soricinae as a monophyletic unity. Yet, the morphological criteria of hair complete the osteological criteria of Repenning (1967) an plead for the validitiy of the often refuted subfamilies.

Notes: Summary Mating behaviour and sperm transfer inTh. amazonicus andT. crucifer are similar to that ofMastigoproctus. During the short courtship the male graps one (Thelyphonellus) or both (Typopeltis) antenniform legs of the female and holds their tips between his chelicerae. Then he turns until both animals face the same direction, and the female embraces the male's opisthosoma from below and behind. After the “mating parade”, the male deposits a spermatophore and pulls the female over it. The female picks up two sperm packages from the spermatophore and releases the male's opisthosoma. The male now turns, embraces the female's opisthosoma from above and with his palpal chelae pushes the sperm packages into the female's gonopore. Thereafter, the sperm packages are emptied by different movements.Thelyphonellus usually starts a second mating dance and sperm transfer behaviour immediately after the first one has been finished. The sperm packages ofThelyphonellus are elongate and similar to those ofMastigoproctus. Their tips are partly protected by a conductor like structure. After having been pushed into the female's gonopore only the blunt ends of the sperm packages protrude. These are pulled to the sides of the genital slit and pushed toward the midline again by the male again and again, and thereby the sperm packages are partly emptied. The male manipulates the blunt ends of the sperm packages with the tips of the movable fingers of his palpal chelae which are help open. InTypopeltis, the sperm packages are not elongate. They are pushed completely into the female's gonopore. Thereafter the male strongly presses onto the female's genital operculum and thus empties the sperm packages. During this process the male's palpal chelae are closed and, together with the modified patellar apophysis, form a strong pressing instrument. Sperm transfer seems to be more specialized and effective inTypopeltis than inThelyphonellus andMastigoproctus,

Notes: Summary The structure of the male reproductive systems of two species ofHaplognathia cf.lyra andH. cf.rosacea was described. The structure of the testes and the anterior portions of the sperm ducts in both species was found to be similar. However, considerable species differences were found between the structures of the glands and muscles associated with the reproductive systems. These were more elaborate inH. cf.lyra than inH. cf.rosacea. The former species possessed an H-shaped sperm duct gland, three distinct groups of penis muscles and a penis with two cell types and with a lumen. The latter species had paired sperm duct glands, no specialized penis muscles and a penis with only one cell type and without a detectable lumen. No open gonopore was observed in either species. The sperm presumably exit through a ventral tissue connection observed connecting the penis and the ventral epidermis. These findings were discussed in the light of Mainitz's (1977) theory concerning the primitive penis type within the Gnathostomulida.

Notes: Summary Spermatozoa ofProkoenenia wheeleri have a spheroid part which contains a large vacuole and a smaller appendage in which chromatin filaments and a specialized acrosome are located. The flagellum is missing. In early spermatids rich in rough ER the vacuole is secreted from several Golgi apparatus. Later spermatids show an elongation of the part in which the nucleus and acrosoma are situated. This appendage is coiled around the vacuolated part of the cell. Finally, the cell membranes between the neighboring coils disappear. Spermatozoa and Spermiogenesis of Palpigradi must be considered apomorphic.

Notes: Summary Some of the changes which occur in wood during the transition from sapwood to heartwood have been reviewed. The nature of these changes suggest that heartwood formation is a regulatory process serving to keep the amount of sapwood at an optimum level. The pattern formed by the transition of cells from sapwood to heartwood suggests that heartwood development is controlled by a centripetally-translocated growth-active substance. The nature of the heartwood transformation is indicative of a developmental process rather than a deterioration of cell function with age so that death of the parenchyma cells is the result and not the cause of heartwood formation.

Notes: Abstract The Young's and shear moduli of two lignins have been measured at several moisture contents. Cylindrical test specimens moulded from periodate and Klason lignin powders were conditioned to the required moisture contents and tested in tension and torsion. The Young's modulus of periodate lignin increased linearly from 3.1x109 to 6.7x109 Pa, and the shear modulus from 1.2x109 to 2.1x109 Pa as the moisture content of the lignin decreased from 12 to 3.6%. Klason lignin showed similar behaviour but its moduli were always much lower. This was probably a consequence of the more drastic alteration undergone by the Klason lignin during its isolation from the wood cell wall.

Notes: Abstract A means to quantitatively construct two layer models of the wood cell-wall utilising basic density and mean microfibril angle data is discussed. It is assumed that the lignin distribution is uniform in the secondary wall layers, that there is a fixed polysaccharide ratio throughout the wall and that variation in wall thickness arises only from variation in S2 layer thickness. It is shown that the relative thickness of those cell wall layers in which the cellulose is transversely oriented (M+P, S1 and S3) have a significant effect on longitudinal shrinkage and that variance between computed and measured shrinkage values is reduced when compared with earlier models if both basic density and mean microfibril angle are taken into account.

Notes: Summary Fines removed from the surfaces of Pinus radiata fibres by beating were identified and characterised in terms of microfibril orientations in the surfaces of beaten fibres. Fines fractions subjected to chemical analyses were selected so that chemical component data could be related to specific layers or lamellae in fibre walls. Carbohydrate distributions within the walls of kraft fibres differed from those in bisulphite fibres. In the kraft fibres, glucomannan increased and other hemicelluloses decreased from the primary wall to the outer lamellae of the S2 layer of the secondary wall. In the bisulphite fibres, hemicelluloses were uniformly distributed throughout the outer wall layers, i. e., the primary wall and the S1 and outer lamellae of the S2 layers of the secondary wall. More galactan but less arabinan, xylan, and glucomannan were found in the outer layers than in the inner layers of the bisulphite fibres. Carbohydrate distributions were determined for a range of bisulphite pulp yields (53 to 80 percent). The outer layers of the bisulphite fibres contained more Klason lignin than the inner layers. Acid-soluble lignin contents were similar in the inner and outer layers.

Notes: Summary The effect of the number and the location of glue lines in the cross section on the bending properties has been studied on plywood bonded with tannin-formaldehyde adhesive. The thickness of glue line has also been investigated. By comparing the theoretical equations with the empirical ones, we can get the thickness of the glue line of wattle tannin adhesive plywood to be 0.15 mm. As for Young's modulus in bending of the glue line in the plywood, it is calculated to be 219 800 kg/cm2 and is larger than that of the glue line of phenolic resin bonded plywood. In relation to the veneer, Young's modulus of the veneer under the condition of plywood assembly seems to be slightly larger than that of the veneer under the free condition.

Notes: Summary As the world's supply of non-renewable resources becomes increasingly critical, wood with its many attributes, but also with some inherent problems, has the opportunity of playing a more and more important role in meeting a wide variety of man's needs. Research and the development and utilization of research findings will be most important in determining how well wood fares in the years ahead. Those involved in the research effort must be aware of the need to select problems which if successful solutions are found can aid wood in better meeting man's needs. Also, there need be the recognition that the solution will only find use, if in addition to the problem being deemed of importance, both technical and economic feasibility to a significant degree can be demonstrated. The industrial rather than the scientific community is the final judge.

Notes: Summary Morphological and chemical examinations of the extractives of the tissues and shake contents of eight Dacrydium and one Podocarpus species have been made. The whitish deposits in heart-shakes are without exception mainly podocarpic acid (PCA). This compound occurs also in the tissue of samples but only when shakes are found nearby. Accordingly PCA is regarded as an anomalous extractive, synthesized in response to those conditions resulting in shake formation. In samples with shakes PCA is present in very small amounts at the sapwood-heartwood boundary and in one sample there were traces even in the innermost sapwood. It was notable that shakes containing deposits can arise in those Dacrydium species with coloured heartwood and with a known tendency for wetwood formation. On the other hand Dacrydium franklinii does not develop coloured heartwood or wetwood or shakes, and the lack of these features may have taxonomic significance.

Notes: Summary The mixture of monomeric phenols obtained by hydrogenation of wood from Eucalyptus diversicolor was analysed by GLC and tested for lipid antioxidant activity, which was found to be 75% of that of 2-t-butyl-4-methoxyphenol (BHA). Butylation decreased antioxidant efficiency. Increased demethylation was observed at higher hydrogenation temperatures.

Notes: Summary A differential and an integral method of kinetic analysis of the data from isothermal pyrolysis of two pulps have shown that a cotton linters pulp has a lower activation energy throughout the entire reaction than has a bleached pine kraft pulp. In all cases, the activation energy decreases with increasing conversion. The mean values obtained were 30 and 36 kcal/mole by the differential and integral methods, respectively, for pyrolysis of the cotton linters pulp and 42 and 45 kcal/mole, respectively, for pyrolysis of the bleached pine kraft pulp. Neither method of analysis used in this work requires prior determination or empirical statement of the reaction order n. This is essential to a proper analysis since it has been shown that the reaction order cannot be regarded as a constant if the complete pyrolysis reaction is studied.

Notes: Summary This paper surveys the different kinetic schemes that have been employed with dynamic thermogravimetric analysis and discusses their advantages and shortcomings with particular reference to cellulose. It is concluded that the differential method of Friedman [1965] and the integral method of Flynn and Wall [1966] are the best approaches for kinetic analysis in each category. Both these methods are consistent with and analogous to the isothermal kinetic methods previously given by Cardwell and Luner [1975].

Notes: Summary Characteristic features of wood deformation under loading at changing moisture contents (temperature) are discussed on the basis of results from rheological tests with hardwood. General laws of deformation in wood as a result of various cyclic effects of loading as well as of temperature and moisture content have been established. These laws have been used to solve the problem of the plane stress state in lumber when dried by using the “method of finite elements”. To control internal stresses and for an effective drying process, it is suggested that differential shrinkage should be measured, i.e. the difference between the displacements of points on Both verges of the board's edge and in the centre of the edge.

Notes: Abstract The variation of the coefficient of friction with normal load and tool surface finish in slow speed orthogonal cutting of white fir was investigated to determine the relative importance of different sources of friction. Cutting forces were measured as a function of tool-chip contact length and tool surface roughness. The coefficient of friction was independent of tool roughness for roughness in the range of typically well-finished cutting tools but did become a factor for large values of tool surface roughness. The data indicate that for well-finished cutting tools the primary friction mechanism is adhesion between the tool and work and that for rough tool surfaces the effect of tool surface asperities (unevennesses) as they advance through the chip becomes an important source of friction.

Notes: Summary The thick-walled bamboo fibres exhibit a polylamellate structure with alternating broad and narrow lamellae. Characteristically the cellulose fibrils in the broad lamellae are oriented almost parallel to the longitudinal axis of the fibre (2–20°), whereby there is a gradual but only slight increase in the angle from middle lamella to lumen. The narrow lamellae consist of fibrils oriented almost perpendicular to the cell axis (85–90°); this angle remains constant in all the successive narrow lamellae. The concentration of lignin is higher in the narrow lamellae than in the broad ones. Xylan seems to occur in a higher concentration in the narrow lamellae. The pits between the fibres are bordered. The results are discussed in relation to earlier data on wall structure and development. A model for the thick-walled bamboo fibre is presented with a new terminology for the various lamellae.

Notes: Abstract The percent explained variation (r2) of tensile strength (T) of dimension lumber can be accounted for primarily by apparent modulus of elasticity (Ea). Tensile strength ratio, a good index of T of structural lumber, and Ea are both dependent on relative knot size, making T a function of Ea. This theoretical relationship helps to increase r2 when T is regressed on Ea and gives the “cause and effect” for some multiple regression analyses. An independent variable was identified on the basis of this theory. Shortening the gage length enhances ability to predict T when flatwise bending Ea or tension Ea is used as an independent variable, but not when edgewise bending Ea is used. Two single variables not previously reported, Ea measured in flatwise bending on 16-inch gage length (EF 16) and Ea measured in tension on 6-inch gage length (ET 6) (based solely on deformation measurements), are individually able to explain approximately as much variation of T (r2=0.75) as the combination of Ea measured flatwise on 48-inch gage length (span length for the existing American grading machines), and ASTM bending strength ratio. The combination of EF 16 and ET6 can explain 85% of the variation of T. The highest r2 (0.87) was obtained when a modified bending strength ratio was added to these new variables.

Notes: Summary Fast or abnormal (tumor) growth does not substantially affect wood substance and cell wall density. Consequently, void volume of dry cell walls is also not substantially affected.

Notes: Summary The alkali extract (5% KOH) from beech holocellulose was fractionated by ion exchange chromatography, resulting in several fractions containing different amounts of polyoses and lignin. The separated polyoses varied to some extent in the ratios of their sugar components. Three different 4-0-methylglucurono-xylans and three arabinogalactans were isolated. There was a direct relationship between the chemical composition and the ultrastructure of the fractions. Those containing a pure 4-0-methylglucurono-xylan showed bundles of thin and stiff fibrils while in fractions with a high percentage of lignin coiled fibrils and globular particles could be observed in the electron microscope.

Notes: Summary This is a study on the shrinkage of wood representing the wide range of morphology variation in leaning trees. It involved 13 trees of Eucalyptus regnans, one of Eucalyptus sieberi and four of Pinus radiata, and specimens taken at close intervals around the circumference of each. Data indicated a systematic modulation, between extremes at upper and lower sides of each stem, in longitudinal growth strains, relative proportions of thin, medium and thick-walled fibres, microfibril angle in the S2 layer of these, and both Klason and acid-soluble lignin content. Analyses indicated that the microfibril angle in S2 was a prime factor in influencing both longitudinal and volumetric shrinkage reactions; proportion of thick-walled fibres in the tissue, thickness of S2 relative to S1, and variations in lignification also were involved. Unusually thick-walled fibres were associated with visco-elastic strain recovery effects, which could form a substantial part of dimensional changes apparently attributable to shrinkage.

Notes: Abstract Calculations of the monomolecular water vapor adsorption by three different celluloses (cotton, wood pulp and cellophane) from structural considerations are in agreement with the BET determined values for crystallite diameters of 16 to 200 Å on the basis of adsorption being confined to the fraction f of the three hydroxyl groups per anhydroglucose unit that are available on the surface of the crystallites and within the amorphous zones, when f ranges from 0.16 to 0.29. These low values of f are compatible with the fact that the void volume of the amorphous zones does not exceed about 6%. More exact values for f are needed before more definite values for the crystallite diameters can be estimated. A modified fringe micelle diagram containing a considerable amount of chain association in the amorphous zones is given that meets the requirement dictated by the calculations. Another approach, involving direct estimation of the adsorbing surface areas of crystallites and amorphous zones, on the basis of adjacent surfaces being shared by water molecules adsorbed between them, gives surface areas somewhat larger than the BET values using the same f values. Agreement with values from the former approach is obtained if only 75% of the surface per anhydroglucose unit is considered effective for adsorption.

Notes: Abstract Mycelium of twenty species of wood-destroying fungi was cultivated in nutrient solutions with one of the following sugars as the only carbon source: glucose, arabinose, galactose, mannose and xylose. The growth of the species occurring in nature only on the wood of Angiosperms was equal or lower in the solutions with galactose and mannose than in the solution with glucose. The utilization of mannose was practically the same as that of xylose. The species which are specialized in nature in the wood of conifers grow better in the solutions with galactose and mannose, than in the solution with glucose; likewise mannose is beter utilized than xylose. Fungi attacking both kinds of wood do not exhibit any dependence on the utilization of the sugars used in these investigations.

Notes: Abstract Tangential pit features were studied in a 55-year old black spruce (Picea mariana (Mill) B.S.P.) tree by means of light and electron microscopy. It was found that tangential pitting is lacking from the greatest part of the growth ring, except for the last four tangential rows of latewood tracheids and the first row of early wood tracheids. The average number of pits per tangential wall of a 3.55-mm-long tracheid is 234, 144, 28, 4 and zero, respectively, in the last 5 tangential rows of latewood tracheids, starting at the growth-ring boundary. On the average, tangential pits measure 5.4 μm in diameter, possess oval to elliptical apertures, and are randomly distributed uniformly over the tangential tracheid wall. All tangential intertracheid pits are bordered and in that respect are similar to those in the radial walls. Although most of the pits contain membranes with tori, some at the growth-ring boundary lack tori and exhibit randomly oriented microfibrillar structure.

Notes: Summary Preliminary investigations were carried out aiming at the establishment of relationships between chemical, physical, and mechanical properties of beech wood under the influence of heating in water at 50°C and 100°C at pH values from 2.8 to 8.5 and with heating times up to 25 hours. It was found that heating of beech wood in water at 50°C does not produce remarkable changes in its properties. When green wood was heated at 100°C, insignificant changes in its density, shrinking, and α-cellulose content were observed, whereas a considerable decrease in strength was found when tested in a wet state. It was further observed that on prolonged heating, the reactions of the wood and the solutions used as a heating medium under-went distinct changes, attaining an equivalent value approximating the final pH of the wood.

Notes: Summary In previous papers, a theory was developed relating Young's modulus of hydrogenbond dominated solids to the density of this bond and to its parameters, and also to the moisture content of the solid. In this paper, the theory is applied to experimental results reported by Cousins on periodate lignin. The theory fits the observations and, furthermore, predicts that this particular lignin has 6.84 potential H-bonding sites per repeating unit of an assumed molecular weight of 1,000. No data for periodate lignin exist, but a Freudenberg constitutional scheme for lignin postulates a little over 7 potential sites for H-bonding per repeating unit of 1,000 molecular weight.

Notes: Summary Metabolic differences in the formation of guaiacyl and syringyl lignins were explained in terms of the different functions of O-methyltransferases and reducing enzymes which participate in methylation and reduction of the hydroxycinnamic acid intermediates in the biosynthetic pathway of these two types of lignins. Sinapyl alcohol was dehydrogenated with peroxidase and H2O2 under various reaction conditions. Chemical properties of the dehydrogenation polymers (DHPs) formed were characterized, and the possible occurrence of syringyl lignin in hardwood was discussed. DHP and dimers of p-coumaryl alcohol were also characterized and discussed in relation to the formation of grass lignin which contains p-hydroxyphenyl propane as an additional lignin monomer.

Notes: Summary A technique was developed for the determination of the effective dissolved oxygen diffusivity in liquid-saturated softwood in a diffusion cell under ambient pressure. From the measurements in the temperature range 2° to 50°C, the activation energy of diffusion was found to be 4.6 kcal/mole. The diffusivity in summerwood is about one half of that in springwood. The diffusivity of dissolved oxygen through composite springwood and summerwood layers was based upon samples of two Douglas fir sapwood blocks saturated with water. In the radial and tangential directions, diffusivity was 1.4 to 2.3x10-6cm2/s, which is about 6 to 10% that of dissolved oxygen diffusivity in water. The diffusivity in the longitudinal direction is about 5.5 times that in the other two directions. The diffusivity of dissolved oxygen through liquor-saturated wood and the effect of delignification on oxygen diffusion were also determined.

Notes: Summary The structure of the reducing end group in xylan can be written: -β-D-Xylp-(1→4)-β-D-Xylp-(1→3)-α-L-Rhap-(1→2)--α-D-GalpA-(1→4)-D-Xyl In alkaline media the reducing xylose group is easily isomerized and removed by a β-elimination which leads to a reducing galacturonic acid end group. The 1, 2-linkage between rhamnose and the galacturonic acid explains the retarding effect on the alkaline peeling. Even under fairly mild conditions the galacturonic acid group is converted to other groups which are very stable in alkaline media. Model experiments permit the conclusion that OH-3 in the reducing group is subjected to β-hydroxyelimination. The 3-deoxy-2-O-α-L-rhamnopyranosyl-D-threo-hex-2-enuronic acid group formed is unstable in acid medium and escapes observation by the techniques employed for determination of the end groups. Upon prolonged alkaline treatment and increased proportion of these groups is lost and a rapid peeling proceeds until a xylose group with a 4-O-methylglucuronic acid substituent is liberated. The consecutive reactions of this group are similar to those of the galacturonic acid groups. The formation of 3-deoxyaldonic acid end groups, an important stopping reaction in cellulose, is of minor importance in xylan.

Notes: Summary Ultrathin cross sections of the tracheid wall in black spruce and silver fir have been examined at high resolution by scanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM) and by conventional transmission electron microscopy (TEM). For both softwoods, lamellation of the S2 layer was evident but the lamellae were seen more clearly in the STEM photomicrographs. The interlamellar distance was 7.1 nm in the case of spruce and 8.4 nm for silver fir.

Notes: Summary Increased utilization of eastern spruce and balsam fir has led to a need for a quick method of separating these woods in a mill situation. One such method might be the use of a chemical indicator. A test of various classes of chemical agents applied at different seasons of the year showed that a pH indicator might be suitable for achieving a separation. The most suitable indicator was tested on samples from different geographic locations and at three highproduction stud mills. Additional tests were conducted to explore such variables as moisture content and surface condition of the wood, type of solvent, concentration and temperature. The most suitable indicator found was bromophenol blue at a concentration of 0.10 percent in 95 percent ethanol. When applied to green wood which had been allowed to dry for a few minutes to a few hours, this indicator produced various shades of orange, yellow, green or blue with spruce and a dark blue or blue-violet with fir. With an understanding of the variables that affect the reaction, it is felt that bromophenol blue can be used for the separation of eastern spruce and balsam fir on a commercial basis.

Notes: Summary There is a positive correlation between the percentage of compression wood and specific gravity in Pinus wallichiana. Where compression wood is present a definite increase in specific gravity occurs in an annual ring, but the influence of compression wood on specific gravity is only local. The first-formed earlywood portion of the ring is the most suitable sampling point for a comparison of specific gravity between rings of the same or different trees.

Notes: Summary The dynamic moduli and logarithmic decrement of Rimu (Dacrydium cupressinum) were measured along the grain and perpendicular to it in the frequency range 45–85 kHz using a Marx regenerative oscillator system. The moduli and decrement were observed to exhibit strong dispersions between-20°C and-80°C, the actual temperature being dependent on measurement frequency and moisture content of the sample. The activation enthalpy of the dispersion mechanism varied from 3.9 kcal/mole at moisture contents in excess of 7 % to 6 kcal/mole at lower (1%) moisture content. Impregnation of the wood with solvents produced dispersion effects different from those associated with water impregnation. It is postulated that this mechanical dispersion observed in moisture-bearing wood results from the motion of the adsorbed water molecules.

Notes: Summary Compression wood in the ancient Ginkgo biloba differs from that in most of the younger gymnosperms in the more angular outline of its tracheids, their thinner walls, and their lack of helical cavities. Both normal and compression woods of Ginkgo contain two types of tracheids, one wide, with a thin wall, and another, narrow, with a thicker wall. In all other respects the compression wood tracheids in Ginkgo are ultrastructurally similar to those in other gymnosperms. Helical cavities probably developed relatively late in the evolution of compression wood, since they are missing not only in Ginkgo but also in the Taxales and the Araucariaceae. The occurrence of compression wood in Ginkgo biloba indicates that this tissue probably has existed since the Devonean period. Very likely, the arborescent habit of the gymnosperms has always been dependent on their ability to form compression wood.

Notes: Summary The different approaches to the use of steady-state gas flow data in the prediction of the steady-state axial permeability of wood to liquids are reviewed. Since these may be shown to have certain theoretical shortcomings, a new predictive method based on a computer analysis is presented. This and previous methods are tested experimentally; apparently, none can be relied upon to predict the liquid permeability accurately. However, it is clear that the true liquid permeability is not measured; the reasons for this are uncertain. Until this difficulty is resolved, the precision of predictive methods cannot be accurately assessed.

Notes: Abstract After enzymic hydrolysis of polysaccharides in milled wood or pulp the unhydrolysed lignin residue becomes soluble in certain polar solvents. Extensive disintegration of the wood is necessary to obtain a sufficient accessibility toward the enzyme. For milling a porcelain rotary ball mill is recommended. A relationship has been found between the milling energy, which is proportional to the size of the mill, the milling time, and the yield of ball-milled wood lignin (BMWL). Enzymatically isolated lignin (EIL) requires a critical milling time which is shorter than that for obtaining maximum yields of BMWL. A procedure for isolation of the total lignin content from wood and pulps in the form of three fractions has been developed, giving a water soluble, low molecular carbohydrate-lignin complex by water extraction of ball-milled wood, a BMWL-carbohydrate complex by subsequent extraction with dioxane, and a EIL-carbohydrate complex by dioxane extraction of the residue after enzymic hydrolysis.

Notes: Summary Wood radiation densitometry started with the β-ray method but was largely developed with the X-ray method. The density components obtained have been successfully used directly for anatomical, physiological and technological studies. But they also serve as dependent variables to determine the effects of heridity, fertilization, growth rate, entomological defoliation, irrigation, industrial smokes, green pruning, phenology or climatic factors on wood structure or quality and as explanatory variables to elucidate mechanical strength, windbreaks on living trees or sawteeth performances.

Notes: Summary Effects of the workpiece surface vibration on planing noise were investigated theoretically and experimentally. A method of calculating the sound pressure level generated by the workpiece surface vibration due to the impact of planing knives was developed. Sound pressure levels and sound spectra calculated using this method show good agreement with measured values.

Notes: Summary In order to study the wear of tungsten carbide tipped circular saws, three kinds of carbide tips (fine, medium and coarse grained ones) were employed, when sawing particleboards. The saw with coarse grained carbide tips showed the longest working life, while the fine-grained carbide tipped saw retained its usefulness for only a short period of sawing. In an experiment using a saw with all three kinds of carbide tips, it was also confirmed that the fine grained tips wore most and the coarse least. From the observations of the worn tips, it was found that the wear boundary on the clearance face was quite distinct for these tips, although for the fine grained one it was remarkably indented. There were many striations on the wear surface of the fine grained tip, but they scarcely appeared on those of the other two tips. The wear mechanism and the wearing process of the carbide tips are discussed.