ALBERT

Description: The composition and abundance of algal pigments provide information on characteristics of a phytoplankton community in respect to its photoacclimation, overall biomass, and taxonomic composition. Particularly, these pigments play a major role in photoprotection and in the light-driven part of photosynthesis. Most phytoplankton pigments can be measured by High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) techniques to filtered water samples. This method, like others when water samples have to be analysed in the laboratory, is time consuming and therefore only a limited number of data points can be obtained. In order to receive information on phytoplankton pigment composition with a higher temporal and spatial resolution, we have developed a method to assess pigment concentrations from continuous optical measurements. The method applies an Empirical Orthogonal Function (EOF) analysis to remote sensing reflectance data derived from ship-based hyper-spectral underwater radiometric and from multispectral satellite data (using the MERIS Polymer product developed by Steinmetz et al., 2011) measured in the Eastern Tropical Atlantic. Subsequently we developed statistically linear models with measured (collocated) pigment concentrations as the response variable and EOF loadings as predictor variables. The model results, show that surface concentrations of a suite of pigments and pigment groups can be well predicted from the ship-based reflectance measurements, even when only a multi-spectral resolution is chosen (i.e. eight bands similar to those used by MERIS). Based on the MERIS reflectance data, concentrations of total and monovinyl chlorophyll a and the groups of photoprotective and photosynthetic carotenoids can be predicted with high quality. The fitted statistical model constructed on the satellite reflectance data as input was applied to one month of MERIS Polymer data to predict the concentration of those pigment groups for the whole Eastern Tropical Atlantic area. Bootstrapping explorations of cross-validation error indicate that the method can produce reliable predictions with relatively small data sets (e.g., 〈 50 collocated values of reflectance and pigment concentration). The method allows for the derivation of time series from continuous reflectance data of various pigment groups at various regions, which can be used to study variability and change of phytoplankton composition and photo-physiology.

Description: Methane plays an important role in the Earth’s atmospheric chemistry and radiative balance being the second most important greenhouse gas after carbon dioxide. Methane is released to the atmosphere by a wide number of sources, both natural and anthropogenic, with the latter being twice as large as the former (IPCC, 2007). It has recently been established that significant amounts of geological methane, produced within the Earth’s crust, are currently released naturally into the atmosphere (Etiope, 2004). Active or recent volcanic/geothermal areas represent one of these sources of geological methane. But due to the fact that methane flux measurements are laboratory intensive, very few data have been collected until now and the contribution of this source has been generally indirectly estimated (Etiope et al., 2007). The Greek territory is geodynamically very active and has many volcanic and geothermal areas. Here we report on methane flux measurements made at two volcanic/geothermal systems along the South Aegean volcanic arc: Sousaki and Nisyros. The former is an extinct volcanic area of Plio-Pleistocene age hosting nowadays a low enthalpy geothermal field. The latter is a currently quiescent active volcanic system with strong fumarolic activity due to the presence of a high enthalpy geothermal system. Both systems have gas manifestations that emit significant amounts of hydrothermal methane and display important diffuse carbon dioxide emissions from the soils. New data on methane isotopic composition and higher hydrocarbon contents point to an abiogenic origin of the hydrothermal methane in the studied systems. Measured methane flux values range from –48 to 29,000 (38 sites) and from –20 to 1100 mg/mˆ2/d (35 sites) at Sousaki and Nisyros respectively. At Sousaki measurement sites covered almost all the degassing area and the diffuse methane output can be estimated in about 20 t/a from a surface of about 10,000 mˆ2. At Nisyros measurements covered the Stephanos and Kaminakia areas, which represent only a part of the entire degassing area. The two areas show very different methane degassing pattern with latter showing much higher flux values. Methane output can be estimated in about 0.25 t/a from an area of about 30,000 mˆ2 at Stephanos and about 1 t/a from an area of about 20,000 mˆ2 at Kaminakia. The total output from the entire geothermal system of Nisyros probably should not exceed 2 t/a.

Description: Published

Description: Vienna, Austria

Description: 4.5. Studi sul degassamento naturale e sui gas petroliferi

Description: open

Description: A biomonitoring survey, above tree line level, using two endemic species (Senecio aethnensis and Rumex aethnensis) was performed on Mt. Etna, in order to evaluate the dispersion and the impact of volcanic atmospheric emissions. Samples of leaves were collected in summer 2008 from 30 sites in the upper part of the volcano (1500- 3000 m a.s.l). Acid digestion of samples was carried out with a microwave oven, and 44 elements were analyzed by using plasma spectrometry (ICP-MS and ICP-OES). The highest concentrations of all investigated elements were found in the samples collected closest to the degassing craters, and in the downwind sector, confirming that the eastern flank of Mt. Etna is the most impacted by volcanic emissions. Leaves collected along two radial transects from the active vents on the eastern flank, highlight that the levels of metals decrease one or two orders of magnitude with increasing distance from the source. This variability is higher for volatile elements (As, Bi, Cd, Cs, Pb, Sb, Tl) than for more refractory elements (Al, Ba, Sc, Si, Sr, Th, U). The two different species of plants do not show significant differences in the bioaccumulation of most of the analyzed elements, except for lanthanides, which are systematically enriched in Rumex leaves. The high concentrations of many toxic elements in the leaves allow us to consider these plants as highly tolerant species to the volcanic emissions, and suitable for biomonitoring researches in the Mt. Etna area.

Description: Published

Description: Vienna, Austria

Description: 4.4. Scenari e mitigazione del rischio ambientale

Description: open

Description: Etna volcano, Italy, hosts one of the major groundwater systems of the island of Sicily. Waters circulate within highly permeable fractured, mainly hawaiitic, volcanic rocks. Aquifers are limited downwards by the underlying impermeable sedimentary terrains. Thickness of the volcanic rocks generally does not exceed some 300 m, preventing the waters to reach great depths. This is faced by short travel times (years to tens of years) and low thermalisation of the Etnean groundwaters. Measured temperatures are, in fact, generally lower than 25 °C. But the huge annual meteoric recharge (about 0.97 kmˆ3) with a high actual infiltration coefficient (0.75) implies a great underground circulation. During their travel from the summit area to the periphery of the volcano, waters acquire magmatic heat together with volcanic gases and solutes through water-rock interaction processes. In the last 20 years the Etnean aquifers has been extensively studied. Their waters were analysed for dissolved major, minor and trace element, O, H, C, S, B, Sr and He isotopes, and dissolved gas composition. These data have been published in several articles. Here, after a summary of the obtained results, the estimation of the magmatic heat flux through the aquifer will be discussed. To calculate heat uptake during subsurface circulation, for each sampling point (spring, well or drainage gallery) the following data have been considered: flow rate, water temperature, and oxygen isotopic composition. The latter was used to calculate the mean recharge altitude through the measured local isotopic lapse rate. Mean recharge temperatures, weighted for rain amount throughout the year, were obtained from the local weather station network. Calculations were made for a representative number of sampling points (216) including all major issues and corresponding to a total water flow of about 0.315 kmˆ3/a, which is 40% of the effective meteoric recharge. Results gave a total energy output of about 140 MW/a the half of which is ascribable to only 13 sampling points. These correspond to the highest flow drainage galleries with fluxes ranging from 50 to 1000 l/s and wells with pumping rates from 70 to 250 l/s. Geographical distribution indicates that, like magmatic gas leakage, heat flow is influenced by structural features of the volcanic edifice. The major heat discharge through groundwater are all tightly connected either to the major regional tectonic systems or to the major volcanic rift zones along which the most important flank eruptions take place. But rift zones are much more important for heat upraise due to the frequent dikes injection than for gas escape because generally when dikes have been emplaced the structure is no more permeable to gases because it becomes sealed by the cooling magma.

Description: Published

Description: Vienna, Austria

Description: 1.2. TTC - Sorveglianza geochimica delle aree vulcaniche attive

Description: open

Description: During the 2007-2008 antarctic campaign, the Italian PNRA installed a Low Power Magnetometer within the framework of the AIMNet (Antarctic International Magnetometer Network) project, proposed and coordinated by BAS. The magnetometer is situated at Talos Dome, around 300 km geographically North-West from Mario Zucchelli Station (MZS), and approximately at the same geomagnetic latitude as MZS. In this work we present a preliminary analysis of the geomagnetic field 1-min data, and a comparison with simultaneous data from different Antarctic stations.

Description: Published

Description: Vienna, Austria

Description: 1.6. Osservazioni di geomagnetismo

Description: open

Description: In this study temporal variations of coccolithophore blooms are investigated using satellite data. Eight years, from 2003 to 2010, of data of SCIAMACHY, a hyper-spectral satellite sensor on-board ENVISAT, were processed by the PhytoDOAS method to 5 monitor the biomass of coccolithophores in three selected regions. These regions are characterized by frequent occurrence of large coccolithophore blooms. The retrieval results, shown as monthly mean time-series, were compared to related satellite products, including the total surface phytoplankton, i.e., total chlorophyll-a (from GlobColour merged data) and the particulate inorganic carbon (from MODIS-Aqua). The 10 inter-annual variations of the phytoplankton bloom cycles and their maximum monthly mean values have been compared in the three selected regions to the variations of the geophysical parameters: sea-surface temperature (SST), mixed-layer depth (MLD) and surface wind speed, which are known to affect phytoplankton dynamics. For each region the anomalies and linear trends of the monitored parameters over the period of this 15 study have been computed. The patterns of total phytoplankton biomass and specific dynamics of coccolithophores chlorophyll-a in the selected regions are discussed in relation to other studies. The PhytoDOAS results are consistent with the two other ocean color products and support the reported dependencies of coccolithophore biomass’ dynamics to the compared geophysical variables. This suggests, that PhytoDOAS 20 is a valid method for retrieving coccolithophore biomass and for monitoring its bloom developments in the global oceans. Future applications of time-series studies using the PhytoDOAS data set are proposed, also using the new upcoming generations of hyper-spectral satellite sensors with improved spatial resolution.

Description: The gradual cooling of the climate during the Cenozoic has generally been attributed to a decrease in CO2 concentration in the atmosphere. The lack of transient climate models and in particular the lack of high-resolution proxy records of CO2, beyond the ice-core record prohibit however a full understanding of for example the inception of the Northern Hemisphere glaciation and mid-Pleistocene transition. Here we elaborate on an inverse modelling technique to reconstruct a continuous CO2 series over the past 20 million year (Myr), by decomposing the global deep-sea benthic d18O record into a mutually consistent temperature and sea level record, using a set of 1-D models of the major Northern and Southern Hemisphere ice sheets. We subsequently compared the modelled temperature record with ice core and proxy-derived CO2 data to create a continuous CO2 reconstruction over the past 20 Myr. Results show a gradual decline from 450 ppmv around 15 Myr ago to 225 ppmv for mean conditions of the glacial-interglacial cycles of the last 1 Myr, coinciding with a gradual cooling of the global surface temperature of 10 K. Between 13 to 3 Myr ago there is no long-term sea level variation caused by ice-volume changes. We find no evidence for a change in the long-term relation between temperature change and CO2, other than the effect following from the saturation of the absorption bands for CO2. The reconstructed CO2 record shows that the Northern Hemisphere glaciation starts once the long-term average CO2 concentration drops below 265 ppmv after a period of strong decrease in CO2. Finally, only a small long-term decline of 23 ppmv is found during the mid-Pleistocene transition, constraining theories on this major transition in the climate system. The approach is not accurate enough to revise current ideas about climate sensitivity.

Description: The ongoing disintegration of large ice shelf parts in Antarctica raise the need for a better understanding of the physical processes that trigger critical crack growth in ice shelves. Finite elements in combination with configurational forces facilitate the analysis of single surface fractures in ice under various boundary conditions and material parameters. The principles of linear elastic fracture mechanics are applied to show the strong influence of different depth dependent functions for the density and the Young’s modulus on the stress intensity factor KI at the crack tip. Ice, for this purpose, is treated as an elastically compressible solid and the conse- quences of this choice in comparison to the predominant in- compressible approaches are discussed. The computed stress intensity factors KI for dry and water filled cracks are com- pared to critical values KIc from measurements that can be found in literature.

Description: The reconstruction of the stable carbon isotope evolution in atmospheric CO2 (δ13Catm), as archived in Antarctic ice cores, bears the potential to disentangle the contributions of the different carbon cycle fluxes causing past CO2 variations. Here we present a new record of δ13Catm before, during and after the Marine Isotope Stage 5.5 (155 000 to 105 000 yr BP). The dataset is archived on the data repository PANGEA® (www.pangea.de) under 10.1594/PANGAEA.817041. The record was derived with a well established sublimation method using ice from the EPICA Dome C (EDC) and the Talos Dome ice cores in East Antarctica. We find a 0.4‰ shift to heavier values between the mean δ13Catm level in the Penultimate (~ 140 000 yr BP) and Last Glacial Maximum (~ 22 000 yr BP), which can be explained by either (i) changes in the isotopic composition or (ii) intensity of the carbon input fluxes to the combined ocean/atmosphere carbon reservoir or (iii) by long-term peat buildup. Our isotopic data suggest that the carbon cycle evolution along Termination II and the subsequent interglacial was controlled by essentially the same processes as during the last 24 000 yr, but with different phasing and magnitudes. Furthermore, a 5000 yr lag in the CO2 decline relative to EDC temperatures is confirmed during the glacial inception at the end of MIS5.5 (120 000 yr BP). Based on our isotopic data this lag can be explained by terrestrial carbon release and carbonate compensation.

Description: Stable carbon isotope analysis of methane (δ13C of CH4) on atmospheric samples is one key method to constrain the current and past atmospheric CH4 budget. A frequently applied measurement technique is gas chromatography (GC) isotope ratio mass spectrometry (IRMS) coupled to a combustion-preconcentration unit. This report shows that the atmospheric trace gas krypton (Kr) can severely interfere during the mass spectrometric measurement, leading to significant biases in δ13C of CH4, if krypton is not sufficiently separated during the analysis. According to our experiments, the krypton interference is likely composed of two individual effects, with the lateral tailing of the doubly charged 86Kr peak affecting the neighbouring m/z 44 and partially the m/z 45 Faraday cups. Additionally, a broad signal affecting m/z 45 and especially m/z 46 is assumed to result from scattered ions of singly charged krypton. The introduced bias in the measured isotope ratios is dependent on the chromatographic separation, the krypton-to-CH4 mixing ratio in the sample, the focusing of the mass spectrometer as well as the detector configuration and can amount to up to several per mil in δ13C. Apart from technical solutions to avoid this interference, we present correction routines to a posteriori remove the bias.

Description: Permafrost is one of the essential climate variables addressed by the Global Terrestrial Observing System (GCOS). Remote sensing data provide area-wide monitoring of e.g. surface temperatures or soil surface status (frozen or thawed state) in the Arctic and Subarctic, where ground data collection is difficult and restricted to local measurements at few monitoring sites. The task of the ESA Data User Element (DUE) Permafrost project is to build-up an Earth observation service for northern high-latitudinal permafrost applications with extensive involvement of the international permafrost research community (www.ipf.tuwien.ac.at/permafrost). The satellite-derived DUE Permafrost products are Land Surface Temperature, Surface Soil Moisture, Surface Frozen and Thawed State, Digital Elevation Model (locally as remote sensing product and circumpolar as non-remote sensing product) and Subsidence, and Land Cover. Land Surface Temperature, Surface Soil Moisture, and Surface Frozen and Thawed State will be provided for the circumpolar permafrost area north of 55° N with 25 km spatial resolution. In addition, regional products with higher spatial resolution were developed for five case study regions in different permafrost zones of the tundra and taiga (Laptev Sea [RU], Central Yakutia [RU], Western Siberia [RU], Alaska N-S transect, [US] Mackenzie River and Valley [CA]). This study shows the evaluation of two DUE Permafrost regional products, Land Surface Temperature and Surface Frozen and Thawed State, using freely available ground truth data from the Global Terrestrial Network of Permafrost (GTN-P) and monitoring data from the Russian-German Samoylov research station in the Lena River Delta (Central Siberia, RU). The GTN-P permafrost monitoring sites with their position in different permafrost zones are highly qualified for the validation of DUE Permafrost remote sensing products. Air and surface temperatures with high-temporal resolution from eleven GTN-P sites in Alaska and four sites in Siberia were used to match up LST products. Daily average GTN-P borehole- and air temperature data for three Alaskan and six Western Siberian sites were used to evaluate surface frozen and thawed. First results are promising and demonstrate the great benefit of freely available ground truth databases for remote sensing products.

Description: The Toba eruption that occurred some 74 ka ago in Sumatra, Indonesia, is among the largest volcanic events on Earth over the last 2 million years. Tephra from this eruption has been spread over vast areas in Asia, where it constitutes a major time marker close to the Marine Isotope Stage 4/5 boundary. As yet, no tephra associated with Toba has been identified in Greenland or Antarctic ice cores. Based on new accurate dating of Toba tephra and on accurately dated European stalagmites, the Toba event is known to occur between the onsets of Greenland interstadials (GI) 19 and 20. Furthermore, the existing linking of Greenland and Antarctic ice cores by gas records and by the bipolar seesaw hypothesis suggests that the Antarctic counterpart is situated between Antarctic Isotope Maxima (AIM) 19 and 20. In this work we suggest a direct synchronization of Greenland (NGRIP) and Antarctic (EDML) ice cores at the Toba eruption based on matching of a pattern of bipolar volcanic spikes. Annual layer counting between volcanic spikes in both cores allows for a unique match. We first demonstrate this bipolar matching technique at the already synchronized Laschamp geomagnetic excursion (41 ka BP) before we apply it to the suggested Toba interval. The Toba synchronization pattern covers some 2000 yr in GI-20 and AIM-19/20 and includes nine acidity peaks that are recognized in both ice cores. The suggested bipolar Toba synchronization has decadal precision. It thus allows a determination of the exact phasing of inter-hemispheric climate in a time interval of poorly constrained ice core records, and it allows for a discussion of the climatic impact of the Toba eruption in a global perspective. The bipolar linking gives no support for a long-term global cooling caused by the Toba eruption as Antarctica experiences a major warming shortly after the event. Furthermore, our bipolar match provides a way to place palaeo-environmental records other than ice cores into a precise climatic context.

Description: Here we present results of the first comprehensive study of sulphur compounds and methane in the oligotrophic tropical West Pacific Ocean. The concentrations of dimethylsuphide (DMS), dimethylsulphoniopropionate (DMSP), dimethylsulphoxide (DMSO), and methane (CH4), as well as various phytoplankton marker pigments in the surface ocean were measured along a north-south transit from Japan to Australia in October 2009. DMS (0.9 nmol l−1), dissolved DMSP (DMSPd, 1.6 nmol l−1) and particulate DMSP (DMSPp, 2 nmol l−1) concentrations were generally low, while dissolved DMSO (DMSOd, 4.4 nmol l−1) and particulate DMSO (DMSOp, 11.5 nmol l−1) concentrations were comparably enhanced. Positive correlations were found between DMSO and DMSP as well as DMSP and DMSO with chlorophyll a, which suggests a similar source for both compounds. Similar phytoplankton groups were identified as being important for the DMSO and DMSP pool, thus, the same algae taxa might produce both DMSP and DMSO. In contrast, phytoplankton seemed to play only a minor role for the DMS distribution in the western Pacific Ocean. The observed DMSPp : DMSOp ratios were very low and seem to be characteristic of oligotrophic tropical waters representing the extreme endpoint of the global DMSPp : DMSOp ratio vs. SST relationship. It is most likely that nutrient limitation and oxidative stress in the tropical West Pacific Ocean triggered enhanced DMSO production leading to an accumulation of DMSO in the sea surface. Positive correlations between DMSPd and CH4, as well as between DMSO (particulate and total) and CH4, were found along the transit. We conclude that both DMSP and DMSO serve as substrates for methanogenic bacteria in the western Pacific Ocean.

Description: The Lena Delta in Northern Siberia is one of the largest river deltas in the world. During peak discharge, after the ice melt in spring, it delivers between 60–8000 m3 s−1 of water and sediment into the Arctic Ocean. The Lena Delta and the Laptev Sea coast also constitute a continuous permafrost region. Ongoing climate change, which is particularly pronounced in the Arctic, is leading to increased rates of permafrost thaw. This has already profoundly altered the discharge rates of the Lena River. But the chemistry of the river waters which are discharged into the coastal Laptev Sea have also been hypothesized to undergo considerable compositional changes, e.g. by increasing concentrations of inorganic nutrients such as dissolved organic carbon (DOC) and methane. These physical and chemical changes will also affect the composition of the phytoplankton communities. However, before potential consequences of climate change for coastal arctic phytoplankton communities can be judged, the inherent status of the diversity and food web interactions within the delta have to be established. In 2010, as part of the AWI Lena Delta programme, the phyto- and microzooplankton community in three river channels of the delta (Trofimov, Bykov and Olenek) as well as four coastal transects were investigated to capture the typical river phytoplankton communities and the transitional zone of brackish/marine conditions. Most CTD profiles from 23 coastal stations showed very strong stratification. The only exception to this was a small, shallow and mixed area running from the outflow of Bykov channel in a northerly direction parallel to the shore. Of the five stations in this area, three had a salinity of close to zero. Two further stations had salinities of around 2 and 5 throughout the water column. In the remaining transects, on the other hand, salinities varied between 5 and 30 with depth. Phytoplankton counts from the outflow from the Lena were dominated by diatoms (Aulacoseira species) cyanobacteria (Aphanizomenon, Pseudanabaena) and chlorophytes. In contrast, in the stratified stations the plankton was mostly dominated by dinoflagellates, ciliates and nanoflagellates, with only an insignificant diatom component from the genera Chaetoceros and Thalassiosira (brackish as opposed to freshwater species). Ciliate abundance was significantly coupled with the abundance of total flagellates. A pronounced partitioning in the phytoplankton community was also discernible with depth, with a different community composition and abundance above and below the thermocline in the stratified sites. This work is a first analysis of the phytoplankton community structure in the region where Lena River discharge enters the Laptev Sea.

Description: There are a number of clear examples in the instrumental period where positive El Niño events were coincident with a severely weakened summer monsoon over India (ISM). ENSO's influence on the Indian Monsoon has therefore remained the centerpiece of various predictive schemes of ISM rainfall for over a century. The teleconnection between the monsoon and ENSO has undergone a protracted weakening since the late 1980's suggesting the strength of ENSO's influence on the monsoon may vary considerably on multidecadal timescales. The recent weakening has specifically prompted questions as to whether this shift represents a natural mode of climate variability or a fundamental change in ENSO and/or ISM dynamics due to anthropogenic warming. The brevity of empirical observations and large systematic errors in the representation of these two systems in state-of-the-art general circulation models hamper efforts to reliably assess the low frequency nature of this dynamical coupling under varying climate forcings. Here we place the 20th century ENSO-Monsoon relationship in a millennial context by assessing the phase angle between the two systems across the time spectrum using a continuous tree-ring ENSO reconstruction from North America and a speleothem oxygen isotope (δ18O) based reconstruction of the ISM. The results suggest that in the high-frequency domain (≤ 15 yr), El Niño (La Niña) events persistently lead to a weakened (strengthened) monsoon consistent with the observed relationship between the two systems during the instrumental period. However, in the low frequency domain (≥ 60 yr), periods of strong monsoon are, in general, coincident with periods of enhanced ENSO variance. This relationship is opposite to which would be predicted dynamically and leads us to conclude that ENSO is not pacing the prominent multidecadal variability that has characterized the ISM over the last millennium.

Description: Sea ice thickness information is important for sea ice modelling and ship operations. Here a method to detect the thickness of sea ice up to 50 cm during the freeze-up season based on high incidence angle observations of the Soil Moisture and Ocean Salinity (SMOS) satellite working at 1.4 GHz is suggested. By comparison of thermodynamic ice growth data with SMOS brightness temperatures, a high correlation to intensity and an anticorrelation to the difference between vertically and horizontally polarised brightness temperatures at incidence angles between 40 and 50° are found and used to develop an empirical retrieval algorithm sensitive to thin sea ice up to 50 cm thickness. The algorithm shows high correlation with ice thickness data from airborne measurements and reasonable ice thickness patterns for the Arctic freeze-up period.

Description: Following the launch of ESA's Soil Moisture and Ocean Salinity (SMOS) mission, it has been shown that brightness temperatures at a low microwave frequency of 1.4 GHz (L-band) are sensitive to sea ice properties. In the first demonstration study, sea ice thickness up to 50 cm has been derived using a semi-empirical algorithm with constant tie-points. Here, we introduce a novel iterative retrieval algorithm that is based on a thermodynamic sea ice model and a three-layer radiative transfer model, which explicitly takes variations of ice temperature and ice salinity into account. In addition, ice thickness variations within the SMOS spatial resolution are considered through a statistical thickness distribution function derived from high-resolution ice thickness measurements from NASA's Operation IceBridge campaign. This new algorithm has been used for the continuous operational production of a SMOS-based sea ice thickness data set from 2010 on. The data set is compared to and validated with estimates from assimilation systems, remote sensing data, and airborne electromagnetic sounding data. The comparisons show that the new retrieval algorithm has a considerably better agreement with the validation data and delivers a more realistic Arctic-wide ice thickness distribution than the algorithm used in the previous study (Kaleschke et al., 2012).

Description: The ice shelf caverns around Antarctica are sources of cold and fresh water which contributes to the formation of Antarctic bottom water and thus to the ventilation of the deep basins of the World Ocean. While a realistic simulation of the cavern circulation requires high resolution, because of the complicated bottom topography and ice shelf morphology, the physics of melting and freezing at the ice shelf base is relatively simple. We have developed an analytically solvable box model of the cavern thermohaline state, using the formulation of melting and freezing as in Olbers and Hellmer (2010). There is high resolution along the cavern's path of the overturning circulation whereas the cross-path resolution is fairly coarse. The circulation in the cavern is prescribed and used as a tuning parameter to constrain the solution by attempting to match observed ranges for outflow temperature and salinity at the ice shelf front as well as of the mean basal melt rate. The method, tested for six Antarctic ice shelves, can be used for a quick estimate of melt/freeze rates and the overturning rate in particular caverns, given the temperature and salinity of the inflow and the above mentioned constrains for outflow and melting. In turn, the model can also be used for testing the compatibility of remotely sensed basal mass loss with observed cavern inflow characteristics.

Description: Bio-optical measurements and sampling were carried out in the delta of the Lena River (northern Siberia, Russia) between 26 June and 4 July 2011. The aim of this study was to determine the inherent optical properties of the Lena water, i.e., absorption, attenuation, and scattering coefficients, during the period of maximum runoff. This aimed to contribute to the development of a bio-optical model for use as the basis for optical remote sensing of coastal water of the Arctic. In this context the absorption by CDOM (colored dissolved organic matter) and particles, and the concentrations of total suspended matter, phytoplankton-pigments, and carbon were measured. CDOM was found to be the most dominant parameter affecting the optical properties of the river, with an absorption coefficient of 4.5–5 m−1 at 442 nm, which was almost four times higher than total particle absorption values at visible wavelength range. The wavelenght-dependence of absorption of the different water constituents was chracterized by determining the semi logarithmic spectral slope. Mean CDOM, and detritus slopes were 0.0149 nm−1(standard deviation (stdev) = 0.0003, n = 18), and 0.0057 nm−1 (stdev = 0.0017, n = 19), respectively, values which are typical for water bodies with high concentrations of dissolved and particulate carbon. Mean chlorophyll a and total suspended matter were 1.8 mg m−3 (stdev = 0.734 n = 18) and 31.9 g m−3 (stdev = 19.94, n = 27), respectively. DOC (dissolved organic carbon) was in the range 8–10 g m−3 and the total particulate carbon (PC) in the range 0.25–1.5 g m−3. The light penetration depth (Secchi disc depth) was in the range 30–90 cm and was highly correlated with the suspended matter concentration. The period of maximum river runoff in June was chosen to obtain bio-optical data when maximum water constituents are transported into the Laptev Sea. However, we are aware that more data from other seasons and other years need to be collected to establish a general bio-optical model of the Lena water and conclusively characterize the light climate with respect to primary production.

Description: The Surface Ocean CO2 Atlas (SOCAT), an activity of the international marine carbon research community, provides access to synthesis and gridded fCO2 (fugacity of carbon dioxide) products for the surface oceans. Version 2 of SOCAT is an update of the previous release (version 1) with more data (increased from 6.3 million to 10.1 million surface water fCO2 values) and extended data coverage (from 1968–2007 to 1968–2011). The quality control criteria, while identical in both versions, have been applied more strictly in version 2 than in version 1. The SOCAT website (http://www.socat.info/) has links to quality control comments, metadata, individual data set files, and synthesis and gridded data products. Interactive online tools allow visitors to explore the richness of the data. Applications of SOCAT include process studies, quantification of the ocean carbon sink and its spatial, seasonal, year-to-year and longerterm variation, as well as initialisation or validation of ocean carbon models and coupled climate-carbon models.

Description: In a feasibility study, the potential of proxy data for the temperature and salinity during the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM, about 19 000 to 23 000 years before present) in constraining the strength of the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation (AMOC) with a general ocean circulation model was explored. The proxy data were simulated by drawing data from four different model simulations at the ocean sediment core locations of the Multiproxy Approach for the Reconstruction of the Glacial Ocean surface (MARGO) project, and perturbing these data with realistic noise estimates. The results suggest that our method has the potential to provide estimates of the past strength of the AMOC even from sparse data, but in general, paleo-sea-surface temperature data without additional prior knowledge about the ocean state during the LGM is not adequate to constrain the model. On the one hand, additional data in the deep-ocean and salinity data are shown to be highly important in estimating the LGM circulation. On the other hand, increasing the amount of surface data alone does not appear to be enough for better estimates. Finally, better initial guesses to start the state estimation procedure would greatly improve the performance of the method. Indeed, with a sufficiently good first guess, just the sea-surface temperature data from the MARGO project promise to be sufficient for reliable estimates of the strength of the AMOC.

Description: Dynamical processes during the formation phase of the Arctic stratospheric vortex in autumn (from September to December) can introduce considerable interannual variability in the amount of ozone that is incorporated into the vortex. Chemistry in autumn tends to remove part of this variability because ozone relaxes towards equilibrium. As a quantitative measure of how important dynamical variability during vortex formation is for the winter ozone abundances above the Arctic we analyze which fraction of an ozone anomaly induced during vortex formation persists until early winter (3 January). The work is based on the Lagrangian Chemistry Transport Model ATLAS. In a case study, model runs for the winter 1999–2000 are used to assess the fate of an ozone anomaly artificially introduced during the vortex formation phase on 16 September. The runs provide information about the persistence of the induced ozone anomaly as a function of time, potential temperature and latitude. The induced ozone anomaly survives longer inside the polar vortex compared to outside the vortex. Half of the initial perturbation survives until 3 January at 540 K inside the polar vortex, with a rapid fall off towards higher levels, mainly due to NOx induced chemistry. Above 750 K the signal falls to values below 0.5%. Hence, dynamically induced ozone variability from the early vortex formation phase cannot significantly contribute to early winter variability above 750 K. At lower levels increasingly larger fractions of the initial perturbation survive, reaching 90% at 450 K. In this vertical range dynamical processes during the vortex formation phase are crucial for the ozone abundance in early winter.

Description: We present first results from a coupled model setup, consisting of the state-of-the-art ice sheet model RIMBAY (Revised Ice Model Based on frAnk pattYn), and the community earth system model COSMOS. We show that special care has to be provided in order to ensure physical distributions of the forcings as well as numeric stability of the involved models. We demonstrate that a suitable statistical downscaling is crucial for ice sheet stability, especially for southern Greenland where surface temperatures are close to the melting point. The downscaling of net snow accumulation is based on an empirical relationship between surface slope and rainfall. The simulated ice sheet does not show dramatic loss of ice volume for pre-industrial conditions and is comparable with present-day ice orography. A sensitivity study with high CO2 level is used to demonstrate the effects of dynamic ice sheets onto climate compared to the standard setup with prescribed ice sheets.

Description: Sea urchins as broadcasting spawners, release their gametes into open water for fertilization, thus being particularly vulnerable to ocean acidification. In this study, we assessed the effects of different pH scenarios on fertilization success of Strongylocen- 5 trotus droebachiensis, collected at Spitsbergen, Arctic. We achieved acidification by bubbling CO2 into filtered seawater using partial pressures (pCO2) of 180, 380, 980, 1400 and 3000 μatm. Untreated filtered seawater was used as control. We recorded fertilization rates and diagnosed morphological aberrations after post-fertilization periods of 1 h and 3 h under different exposure conditions in experiments with and without 10 pre-incubation of the eggs prior to fertilization. In parallel, we conducted measurements of intracellular pH changes using BCECF/AM in unfertilized eggs exposed to a range of acidified seawater. We observed increasing rates of polyspermy in relation to higher seawater pCO2, which might be due to failures in the formation of the fertilization envelope. In addition, our experiments showed anomalies in fertilized eggs: incomplete 15 lifting-off of the fertilization envelope and blebs of the hyaline layer. Other drastic malformations consisted of constriction, extrusion, vacuolization or degeneration (observed as a gradient from the cortex to the central region of the cell) of the egg cytoplasm, and irregular cell divisions until 2- to 4-cell stages. The intracellular pH (pHi) decreased significantly from 1400 μatm on. All results indicate a decreasing fertilization success 20 at CO2 concentrations from 1400 μatm upwards. Exposure time to low pH might be a threatening factor for the cellular buffer capacity, viability, and development after fertilization.

Description: 〈jats:p〉Abstract. The spatial and temporal variability of a low-centred polygon on the eastern floodplain area of the lower Anabar River (72.070° N, 113.921° E, northern Yakutia, Siberia) has been investigated using a multi-method approach. The present-day vegetation in each square metre was analysed revealing a community of Larix shrubby Betula and Salix on the polygon rim, a dominance of Carex and Andromeda polifolia in the rim-to-pond transition zone, and a predominantly monospecific Scorpidium scorpioides coverage within the pond. The TOC content, TOC/TN ratio, grain-size, vascular plant macrofossils, moss remains, diatoms, and pollen were analysed for two vertical sections and a sediment core from a transect across the polygon. Radiocarbon dating indicates that the formation of the polygon started at least 1500 yr ago; the general positions of the pond and rim have not changed since that time. Two types of pond vegetation were identified, indicating two contrasting development stages of the polygon. The first was a well-established moss association dominated by submerged or floating Scorpidium scorpioides and/or Drepanocladus spp. and overgrown by epiphytic diatoms such as Tabellaria flocculosa and Eunotia taxa. This stage coincides temporally with a period in which the polygon was only drained by lateral subsurface water flow, as indicated by mixed grain sizes. A different moss association occurred during times of repeated river flooding (indicated by homogeneous medium-grained sand that probably accumulated during the annual spring snow melt), characterized by an abundance of Meesia triquetra and a dominance of benthic diatoms (e.g. Navicula vulpina), indicative of a relatively high pH and a high tolerance of disturbance. A comparison of the local polygon vegetation (inferred from moss and macrofossil spectra) with the regional vegetation (inferred from pollen spectra) indicated that the moss association with Scorpidium scorpioides became established during relatively favourable climatic conditions while the association dominated by Meesia triquetra occurred during periods of harsh climatic conditions. Our study revealed a strong riverine influence (in addition to climatic influences) on polygon development and the type of peat accumulated. 〈/jats:p〉

Description: Regional and local patterns in depth to water table, hydrochemistry and peat properties of bogs and their laggs in coastal British Columbia Hydrology and Earth System Sciences, 17, 3421-3435, 2013 Author(s): S. A. Howie and H. J. van Meerveld In restoration planning for damaged raised bogs, the lagg at the bog margin is often not given considerable weight and is sometimes disregarded entirely. However, the lagg is critical for the proper functioning of the bog, as it supports the water mound in the bog. In order to include the lagg in a restoration plan for a raised bog, it is necessary to understand the hydrological characteristics and functions of this rarely studied transition zone. We studied 13 coastal British Columbia (BC) bogs and identified two different gradients in depth to water table, hydrochemistry and peat properties: (1) a local bog expanse–bog margin gradient, and (2) a regional gradient related to climate and proximity to the ocean. Depth to water table generally increased across the transition from bog expanse to bog margin. In the bog expanse, pH was above 4.2 in the Pacific Oceanic wetland region (cooler and wetter climate) and below 4.3 in the Pacific Temperate wetland region (warmer and drier climate). Both pH and pH-corrected electrical conductivity increased significantly across the transition from bog expanse to bog margin, though not in all cases. Na + and Mg 2+ concentrations were generally highest in exposed, oceanic bogs and lower in inland bogs. Ash content in peat samples increased across the bog expanse–bog margin transition, and appears to be a useful abiotic indicator of the location of the bog margin. The observed variation in the hydrological and hydrochemical gradients across the bog expanse–bog margin transition highlights both local and regional diversity of bogs and their associated laggs.

Description: Imperfect scaling in distributions of radar-derived rainfall fields Hydrology and Earth System Sciences Discussions, 10, 11385-11422, 2013 Author(s): M. J. van den Berg, L. Delobbe, and N. E. C. Verhoest Fine scale rainfall observations for modeling exercises are often not available, but rather coarser data derived from a variety of sources are used. Effectively using these data sources in models often requires the probability distribution of the data at the applicable scale. Although numerous models for scaling distributions exist, these are often based on theoretical developments, rather than on data. In this study, we develop a model based on the α-stable distribution of rainfall fields, and tested on 5 min radar data from a Belgian weather radar. We use these data to estimate functions that describe parameters of the distribution over various scales. Moreover, we study how the mean of the distribution and the intermittency change with scale, and validate and design functions to describe the shape parameter of the distribution. This information was combined into an effective model of the distribution. Finally, the model was fitted to data from numerous storms, and the resulting parameters were compared to investigate the change in scaling behavior through time.

Description: Spatially resolved information on karst conduit flow from in-cave dye-tracing Hydrology and Earth System Sciences Discussions, 10, 11311-11335, 2013 Author(s): U. Lauber, W. Ufrecht, and N. Goldscheider Artificial tracers are powerful tools to investigate karst systems. Tracers are commonly injected into sinking streams or dolines, while springs serve as monitoring sites. The obtained flow and transport parameters represent mixed information from the vadose, epiphreatic and phreatic zones, i.e., the aquifer remains a black box. Accessible active caves constitute valuable but underexploited natural laboratories to gain detailed insights into the hydrologic functioning of the aquifer. Two multi-tracer tests in the catchment of a major karst spring (Blautopf, Germany) with injections and monitoring in two associated water caves aimed at obtaining spatially and temporally resolved information on groundwater flow in different compartments of the system. Two tracers were injected in the caves to characterize the hydraulic connections between them and with the spring. Two injections at the land surface, far from the spring, aimed at resolving the aquifer's internal drainage structure. Tracer breakthrough curves were monitored by field fluorimeters in caves and at the spring. Results demonstrate the dendritic drainage structure of the aquifer. It was possible to obtain relevant flow and transport parameters for different sections of this system. The highest mean flow velocities (275 m h −1 ) were observed in the near-spring epiphreatic section (open-channel flow), while velocities in the phreatic zone (pressurized flow) were one order of magnitude lower. Determined conduit water volumes confirm results of water balances and hydrograph analyses. In conclusion, experiments and monitoring in caves can deliver spatially resolved information on karst aquifer heterogeneity and dynamics that cannot be obtained by traditional investigative methods.

Description: On the lack of robustness of hydrologic models regarding water balance simulation – a diagnostic approach on 20 mountainous catchments using three models of increasing complexity Hydrology and Earth System Sciences Discussions, 10, 11337-11383, 2013 Author(s): L. Coron, V. Andréassian, C. Perrin, M. Bourqui, and F. Hendrickx This paper investigates the robustness of rainfall–runoff models when their parameters are transferred in time. More specifically, we studied their ability to simulate water balance on periods with different hydroclimatic characteristics. The testing procedure consisted in a series of parameter transfers between 10-yr periods and the systematic analysis of mean-volume errors. This procedure was applied to three conceptual models of different structural complexity over 20 mountainous catchments in southern France. The results showed that robustness problems are common. Errors on 10-yr-mean flows were significant for all three models and calibration periods, even when the entire record was used for calibration. Various graphical and numerical tools were used to show strong similarities between the shapes of mean flow biases calculated on a 10-yr-long sliding window when various parameter sets are used. Unexpected behavioural similarities were observed between the three models tested, considering their large differences in structural complexity. While the actual causes for robustness problems in these models remain unclear, this work stresses the limited transferability in time of the water balance adjustments made through parameter optimization. Although absolute differences between simulations obtained with different calibrated parameter sets were sometimes substantial, relative differences in simulated mean flows between time periods remained similar regardless of the calibrated parameter sets.

Description: Bayesian networks modelling in support to cross-cutting analysis of water supply and sanitation in developing countries Hydrology and Earth System Sciences, 17, 3397-3419, 2013 Author(s): C. Dondeynaz, J. López Puga, and C. Carmona Moreno Despite the efforts made towards the Millennium Development Goals targets during the last decade, improved access to water supply or basic sanitation still remains unavailable for millions of people across the world. This paper proposes a set of models that use 25 key variables and country profiles from the WatSan4Dev data set involving water supply and sanitation (Dondeynaz et al., 2012). This paper suggests the use of Bayesian network modelling methods because they are more easily adapted to deal with non-normal distributions, and integrate a qualitative approach for data analysis. They also offer the advantage of integrating preliminary knowledge into the probabilistic models. The statistical performance of the proposed models ranges between 20 and 5% error rates, which are very satisfactory taking into account the strong heterogeneity of variables. Probabilistic scenarios run from the models allow an assessment of the relationships between human development, external support, governance aspects, economic activities and water supply and sanitation (WSS) access. According to models proposed in this paper, gaining a strong poverty reduction will require the WSS access to reach 75–76% through: (1) the management of ongoing urbanisation processes to avoid slums development; and (2) the improvement of health care, for instance for children. Improving governance, such as institutional efficiency, capacities to make and apply rules, or control of corruption is positively associated with WSS sustainable development. The first condition for an increment of the HDP (human development and poverty) remains of course an improvement of the economic conditions with higher household incomes. Moreover, a significant country commitment to the environment, associated with civil society freedom of expression constitutes a favourable setting for sustainable WSS services delivery. Intensive agriculture using irrigation practises also appears as a mean for sustainable WSS thanks to multi-uses and complementarities. With a WSS sector organised at national level, irrigation practices can support the structuring and efficiency of the agriculture sector. It may then induce rural development in areas where WSS access often is set back compared to urban areas 1 . External financial support, called Official Development Assistance (ODA CI), plays a role in WSS improvement but comes last in the sensitivity analyses of models. An overall 47% of the Official Development Assistance goes first to poor countries, and is associated to governance aspects: (1) political stability and (2) country commitment to the environment and civil society degree of freedom. These governance aspects constitute a good framework for aid implementation in recipient countries. Modelling is run with the five groups of countries as defined in Dondeynaz et al. (2012). Models for profile 4 (essential external support) and profile 5 (primary material consumption) are specifically detailed and analysed in this paper. For countries in profile 4, fighting against water scarcity and progressing desertification should be the priority. However, for countries in profile 5, efforts should first concentrate on consolidation of political stability while supporting diversification of the economic activities. Nevertheless, for both profiles, reduction of poverty should remain the first priority as previously indicated. 1 JMP statistics, 2004 http://www.wssinfo.org/data-estimates/table/ , last access: 22 July 2013.

Description: Technical Note: A comparison of model and empirical measures of catchment-scale effective energy and mass transfer Hydrology and Earth System Sciences, 17, 3389-3395, 2013 Author(s): C. Rasmussen and E. L. Gallo Recent work suggests that a coupled effective energy and mass transfer (EEMT) term, which includes the energy associated with effective precipitation and primary production, may serve as a robust prediction parameter of critical zone structure and function. However, the models used to estimate EEMT have been solely based on long-term climatological data with little validation using direct empirical measures of energy, water, and carbon balances. Here we compare catchment-scale EEMT estimates generated using two distinct approaches: (1) EEMT modeled using the established methodology based on estimates of monthly effective precipitation and net primary production derived from climatological data, and (2) empirical catchment-scale EEMT estimated using data from 86 catchments of the Model Parameter Estimation Experiment (MOPEX) and MOD17A3 annual net primary production (NPP) product derived from Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS). Results indicated positive and significant linear correspondence ( R 2 = 0.75; P 〈 0.001) between model and empirical measures with an average root mean square error (RMSE) of 4.86 MJ m −2 yr −1 . Modeled EEMT values were consistently greater than empirical measures of EEMT. Empirical catchment estimates of the energy associated with effective precipitation ( E PPT ) were calculated using a mass balance approach that accounts for water losses to quick surface runoff not accounted for in the climatologically modeled E PPT . Similarly, local controls on primary production such as solar radiation and nutrient limitation were not explicitly included in the climatologically based estimates of energy associated with primary production ( E BIO ), whereas these were captured in the remotely sensed MODIS NPP data. These differences likely explain the greater estimate of modeled EEMT relative to the empirical measures. There was significant positive correlation between catchment aridity and the fraction of EEMT partitioned into E BIO ( F BIO ), with an increase in F BIO as a fraction of the total as aridity increases and percentage of catchment woody plant cover decreases. In summary, the data indicated strong correspondence between model and empirical measures of EEMT with limited bias that agree well with other empirical measures of catchment energy and water partitioning and plant cover.

Description: Mobile broadband services have expanded considerably in recent years, driving operators to improve and densify their radio access network (RAN). It has become clear that small cells as well as macrocells must be included in a heterogeneous network, due to the scale of densification required. In order to maximize the end user experience, some level of radio coordination between these small and macrocells is needed ?? this coordination will be signaled across a mobile backhaul network. Mobile backhaul typically refers to the network between the base station site and the network controller site, but can also include interconnection between base station sites. Mobile backhaul includes a spectrum of networks and network technologies, including the RAN and core networks. There is considerable market interest on the development of small cell backhaul solutions that are an evolution of existing backhaul networks. Packet synchronisation mechanisms that are being developed are key to support the mobile backhaul application. Various standards bodies such as the Next Generation Mobile Networks Alliance (NGMN), Small Cell Forum (SCF), Metro Ethernet Forum (MEF), and Broadband Forum (BBF) are also studying what the implications would be on their defined mobile backhaul network architectures.

Description: Heterodyne generation of parallel random bit streams from chaotic emission of an optically injected semiconductor laser is investigated. The continuous-wave optical injection invokes chaotic dynamics in the laser. The broadband chaotic emission is detected through optical heterodyning and electrical heterodyning into different channels. The channels digitize the signals into parallel independent random bit streams. Because of efficient utilization of different portions of the chaos bandwidth, heterodyne detections enable parallel generation of random bit streams, offer high total output bit rates, and require no high-bandwidth analogue-to-digital converters. In the experiment, two optical heterodyne channels and four electrical heterodyne channels are implemented. Each channel is required to digitize only 2.5 GHz of a much broader chaos bandwidth. The sampling rate is 10 GHz with five least significant bits selected from every 8-bit sample. The total output bit rate reaches 100 Gb/s and 200 Gb/s for optical and electrical heterodyning, respectively. The standard test suite of the National Institute of Standards and Technology verifies the randomness of both individual and interleaved output bit streams.

Description: In this article, we introduce the EstiNet OpenFlow network simulator and emulator, and present its support for testing the functions and evaluating the performances of software-defined networks?? OpenFlow controller??s application programs. EstiNet uses an unique kernel reentering simulation methodology to enable unmodified real applications to run on nodes in its simulated network. As a result, without any modification, real NOX/POX or Floodlight OpenFlow controllers can readily run on a host in an EstiNet simulated network to control thousands of simulated OpenFlow switches. EstiNet has the characteristics of a simulator and an emulator at the same time. It combines the advantages of the simulation and emulation approaches without their respective shortcomings. EstiNet uses real OpenFlow controller programs, real network application programs, and the real TCP/IP protocol stack in the Linux kernel to generate correct, accurate, and repeatable SDN application performance results. In this article, we compare EstiNet with ns-3 and Mininet regarding their capabilities, performance, and scalability.

Description: This article discusses novel wireless and optical technologies to address the radical new challenges of small cell mobile backhaul (MBH). Specifically, we examine 60 GHz and 70??80 GHz millimeter-wave technologies for high-capacity last mile and pre-aggregation backhaul, and orthogonal frequency-division multiple access passive optical networks as the optical technology complement for enabling flexible cost-efficient hybrid backhaul coverage. Flexible high-capacity hybrid millimeter wave/optical MBH network operation is next verified via network simulations in the context of a demanding, urban small-cell backhaul application. Finally, a novel software defined networking tool called the backhaul resource manager is introduced for automated dynamic resource provisioning and capacity-aware path computation that improves fairness, network utilization and end-to-end user quality of experience. The introduction of the novel wireless, optical, and software-defined technologies thus has the potential to truly revolutionize the future MBH network.

Description: In this article we discuss different technology alternatives for small cell backhaul, and we present high-frequency microwave technology as a very interesting alternative for wireless backhauling of small cells. In fact, we demonstrate that high-frequency microwave technology can be used for NLOS wireless backhauling of small cells, which opens up new applications for microwave technology. We discuss urban NLOS channel propagation at high frequencies, and we show both measurement and simulation results to validate the use of high-frequency microwave technology for NLOS small cell backhaul.

Description: A novel design and assembly technology is developed for a three-dimensional (3-D) flexible thermal flow sensor based on convective heat transfer to reduce detection error caused by position variation of a sensor inside the flow of narrow and curved geometries, such as coronary artery. The 3-D sensor has three independent sensing elements equally distributed around the catheter tube. This arrangement introduces three independent information channels, and cross-comparisons are used to provide accurate flow measurement. The resistance of the sensing elements is measured at ${sim}{1}-1.2~{rm k}Omega$ with the temperature coefficient of resistance at $0.086%/^{circ}{rm C}$ . Using a constant-current circuit, the three sensing elements are heated to ${sim}10^{circ}{rm C}$ above ambient temperature. Flow testing is implemented in a pipe channel at two positions: on the wall and along the center line. Experimental results from these two positions are discussed and computational fluid dynamic simulation based on Newtonian fluid properties is implemented, showing comparable results within an acceptable range of experimental to simulation errors. Therefore, we demonstrate the capability of 3-D thermal flow sensor for detecting the position of the catheter in the flow channel, thereby providing an accurate flow measurement.

Description: Currently, online social networks such as Facebook, Twitter, Google+, LinkedIn, and Foursquare have become extremely popular all over the world and play a significant role in people??s daily lives. People access OSNs using both traditional desktop PCs and new emerging mobile devices. With more than one billion users worldwide, OSNs are a new venue of innovation with many challenging research problems. In this survey, we aim to give a comprehensive review of state-of-the-art research related to user behavior in OSNs from several perspectives. First, we discuss social connectivity and interaction among users. Also, we investigate traffic activity from a network perspective. Moreover, as mobile devices become a commodity, we pay attention to the characteristics of social behaviors in mobile environments. Last but not least, we review malicious behaviors of OSN users, and discuss several solutions to detect misbehaving users. Our survey serves the important roles of both providing a systematic exploration of existing research highlights and triggering various potentially significant research in these topics.

Description: We discuss the fabrication and performance of an all-polymer, flexural plate wave gravimetric sensor using flexible, piezoelectric Polyvinylidene fluoride as the substrate and an inkjet-printed interdigital transducer (IDT) employing conductive poly(3, 4-ethylenedioxythiophene) poly(styrenesulfonate) to excite Lamb waves within the film. Lamb waves are measured both electronically, using a second IDT, and mapped directly using a scanning laser Doppler vibrometer. Pulsed wave excitation is utilized to isolate the weak acoustic signal from the electromagnetic crosstalk, enabling the measurement of relative changes in the resonant frequency, $Delta f/f_{0}$ , in response to added mass, $Delta m$ , to the sensing area. A gravimetric mass sensitivity equivalent to $Delta f/(f_{0}Delta m)=-153~{rm cm}^{2}/{rm g}$ is measured by mass loading the sensor with printed polymer layers. It is found that the low stiffness of the substrate contributes significantly to the response of the sensor, yielding a measured overall sensitivity of $Delta f/(f_{0}Delta m)=-83~{rm cm}^{2}/{rm g}$ .

Description: In this paper, we propose a novel technological approach for the implementation of large-area flexible artificial skin based on arrays of piezoelectric polymer transducers. Polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) transducers are chosen for the high electromechanical transduction frequency bandwidth (up to 1 kHz). A low-cost and scalable technique for extracting PVDF signals is used to directly provide the piezoelectric film with patterned electrodes. If the skin is meant to cover large areas of a robot body, specific requirements have to be fulfilled from the point of view of the overall system and of the technology. Experimental tests on the prototype skin modules demonstrate the feasibility of the proposed approach and reveal the potentiality to build large area flexible skin.

Description: This paper presents ultra-thin silicon chips (flex–chips) on flexible foils, realized through post-processing steps such as wafer thinning, dicing, and transferring the thinned chips to flexible polyimide foils. The cost effective chemical etching is adopted for wafer thinning and the transfer printing approach, to transfer quasi 1-D structures such as micro/nanoscale wires and ribbons, that is adapted for transferring large ultra-thin flex–chips (widths 4.5–15 mm, lengths 8–36 mm, and thickness ${approx}{rm 15}~mu{rm m}$ ). The post-processing capability is demonstrated with passive structures such as metal interconnects realized on the flex–chips before carrying out the chip thinning step. The resistance values of metal interconnects do not show any appreciable change because of bending of chips for the tested range viz., radius of curvature 9 mm and above. Further, the bending mechanics of silicon membranes on foil is investigated to evaluate the bending limits before a mechanical fracture/failure occurs. The distinct advantages of this paper are: attaining bendability through post-processing of chips, cost effective fabrication process, and easy transfer of chips to the flexible substrates without using conventional and sophisticated equipment such as pick and place set up.

Description: A sensor was made of a polymer composite composed of electrically-conductive carbon nanotubes embedded in elastic polyurethane. The composite was prepared using a polyurethane filter membrane, enmeshing it, and melding together with carbon nanotubes. Testing has shown that the composite can be elongated as much as 400% during which the electrical resistance is increased 270 times. The composite is also sensitive to compression and to organic solvent vapors. These properties indicate the composite could have applications as a highly-deformable strain and chemical vapors sensing element and also as flexible electromagnetic shielding or protection against lightning. As an example of the use of the composite as a strain sensor, the pressure variation between a shoe and floor during walking and knee flexion during cycling has been monitored.

Description: This paper presents a novel concept for stretchable conductors. Metal coated polymer spheres were densely packed in biocompatible silicone tubes. The resistivity of the conductors were in the approximate range of $1times 10^{-4}~Omega{rm m}$ at 0% strain and 50% strain could be applied before degrading their electrical performance. Initial results showed good reproducibility and no drift in resistance values up to 1000 cycles with 0%–25% strain. This make the conductors well suited for digital low speed data transmission. The initial application is intended for integration of electronics in clothing; the conductors have been tested with success transmitting data from a commercial digital combined humidity and temperature sensor.

Description: Recently, there are innovative mechanoluminescent (ML) particles made available, each of which repeatedly emits light in response to small applied stresses even in elastic region. When dispersedly coated onto a structure, each particle acts as a sensitive mechanical sensor, while the two-dimensional emission pattern of the whole assembly reflects the dynamical stress distribution inside the structure and the mechanical information around the crack and defect. To use the remarkable advantage of the ML sensor in flexibility, electricity/lead-free, low-cost, and so forth, and to answer social needs for historical-log of stress/damage accumulation on social infra-structure, we investigate historical-log recording system for crack opening and fatigue crack growth, and finally succeed to record it with responding position and intensity reflecting the trace of propagating crack tip and stress intensity factor around the tip. Furthermore, crack mouse opening displacement accompanied by general traffic of bridge in use is successfully detected.

Description: Spectrum sharing potentially holds the promise of solving the emerging spectrum crisis. However, technology innovators face the conundrum of developing spectrum sharing technologies without the ability to experiment and test with real incumbent systems. Interference with operational incumbents can prevent critical services, and the cost of deploying and operating an incumbent system can be prohibitive. Thus, the lack of incumbent systems and frequency authorization for technology incubation and demonstration has stymied spectrum sharing research. To this end, industry, academia, and regulators all require a test facility for validating hypotheses and demonstrating functionality without affecting operational incumbent systems. This article proposes a four-phase program supported by our spectrum accountability architecture. We propose that our comprehensive experimentation and testing approach for technology incubation and demonstration will accelerate the development of spectrum sharing technologies.

Description: This special issue focuses on the sensors and sensing systems having features like flexibility, bendability, conformability, stretchability, and presence over large areas and 3D surfaces. Like conventional sensors, flexible sensors are also used to measure parameters and agents like pH, temperature, humidity, force, gasses, velocity, flow etc. In addition, they possess the ability to bend. This requires special front-end processing techniques compatible with the flexible materials that these sensors are made of. In response to the call for papers for this special issue, 114 manuscripts were received. Of those, 39 were found not to fit to the scope of the special issue and were separated to be handled by the permanent editors of the Journal. The peer review process resulted in 29 innovative manuscripts to be published here submitted from over 45 institutions, with a few trailing manuscripts to be published at a later issue due to time constraints. Of the work presented here, nine papers describe sensors for health and medical applications. Five papers detail sensors for the general fields of environmental and structural health monitoring. Four are on robotic applications. Although majority of the manuscripts focus on a single sensing function such as fluidic flow, force, pH, temperature or presence of a specific gas, four papers present multifunctional flexible sensors.

Description: Thin, highly compliant sensing skins could provide valuable information for a host of grasping and locomotion tasks with minimal impact on the host system. We describe the design, fabrication, and characterization of a novel soft multi-axis force sensor made of highly deformable materials. The sensor is capable of measuring normal and in-plane shear forces. This soft sensor is composed of an elastomer (modulus: 69 kPa) with embedded microchannels filled with a conductive liquid. Depending on the magnitude and the direction of an applied force, all or part of the microchannels will be compressed, changing their electrical resistance. The two designs presented in this paper differ in their flexibility and channel configurations. The channel dimensions are approximately 200 $,times,$ 200 $mu{rm m}$ and 300 $,times,$ 700 $mu{rm m}$ for the two prototypes, respectively. The overall size of each sensor is 50 $,times,$ 60 $,times,$ 7 mm. The first prototype demonstrated force sensitivities along the two principal in-plane axes of 37.0 and ${-}{rm 28.6}~{rm mV/N}$ . The second prototype demonstrated the capability to detecting and differentiating normal and in-plane forces. In addition, this paper presents the results of a parameter study for different design configurations.

Description: We have developed a fabric sensor knitted of tension-sensitive electro-conductive yarns. Each yarn has an elastic core, around which is wound two other separate, tension-sensitive electro-conductive threads, making this sensor inherently flexible and stretchable and allowing it to conform to any complicated surface on a robot, acting as a robotic skin. The pile-shaped surface of the sensor enhances its ability to detect tangential traction, while also enabling it to sense a normal load. Our aim is to use this sensor in applications involving relative sliding between its surface and a touched object, such as contact recognition, slip detection, and surface identification through a sliding motion. We carefully analyzed the static and dynamic characteristics of this sensor while varying the load and stretching force to fully understand its response and determine its degree of flexibility and stretchability. We found that a discrete wavelet transformation may be used to indicate stick/slip states while the sensor is sliding over surfaces. This method was then used to detect slippage events acting on the sensor's surface, and to decode textures in a classification test using an artificial neural network. Because of its flexibility and sensitivity, this sensor can be used widely as a robotic skin in humanoid robots.

Description: Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) are demonstrated as one of the most interesting materials for gas sensing. The possibility to obtain CNT thin-films via solution-processing techniques has paved the way for low-cost applications of such sensors. In this paper, we demonstrate that high performance gas sensors based on CNT thin-films can be obtained by direct spray deposition onto flexible substrates. The results obtained for ${rm NH}_{3}$ sensing using CNT films deposited on polyimide show exceptionally high as well as immediate response to the test gas, with performance comparable with that obtained on oxidized silicon substrates. In addition, a good repeatability of the sensor response to defined gas concentrations is demonstrated. This represents a major step toward low-cost large-scale production of this class of devices.

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Description: For all you readers who want the inside dope on how to be an architect, you've come to the right place. Here's a real-life story of the evolution of an E2E architect who has shared her lessons learned with us. There's clear insight here. She describes her realization that it's not just about knowledge of the domain or technical skill, but also about communication and learning. The Web extra at http://youtu.be/_RujP0FIjhY is an audio podcast in which Bett Correa and Russ Miller discuss contextual design (CD), a user-centered design process created by Hugh Beyer and Karen Holtzblatt. CD helps software architects and developers better connect with the needs of their users and enables them to more easily "re-imagine" the solution they create for users.

Description: Articles regarding the many faces of software analytics highlight the power of analytics for different types of organizations: large organizations and open source projects, as well as small- to medium-sized projects.

Description: Free, open source software development communities can become large and complex. They can also be a focus of interest for competing companies relying on their outcomes, with employees joining the development and maintenance effort. In those cases, it's especially important for both companies and communities to understand how this collaboration is working and how it matches their policies and expectations. This articles looks at two cases (OpenStack and WebKit) that the authors studied using analytics techniques. They conclude that such analytics can improve factual knowledge about how development communities are performing in aspects that are of interest to companies.

Description: Finding yourself in a situation with a working and a buggy system is quite common. Differential debugging methodically can help by comparing a known good system with a buggy one, working toward the problem source. Some simple steps include applying differential debugging by looking at log files and increasing a system's log verbosity when needed. If the system doesn't offer a sufficiently detailed logging mechanism, you can tease out its runtime behavior with tools that trace calls to the operating system or that trace network packets. You can also compare carefully the two environments where the systems operate. The Web extra at http://youtu.be/qnXS6b4hakg is an audio podcast of author Diomidis Spinellis reading his Tools of the Trade column, in which he discusses how comparing a good system with a buggy one can help locate the source of the problem.

Description: Amisoft, a Chilean software company with 43 employees, successfully uses software analytics in its projects. These support a variety of strategic and tactical decisions, resulting in less overwork of employees. However, the analytics done at Amisoft are very different from the ones used in larger companies.

Description: With smartphones being the primary handheld device for more than a billion people, mobile Web apps are a necessity in both technical and commercial fields. There are several approaches to developing mobile Web apps, but given the fast speed of mobile software evolution, in which the leading companies become marginal in months and new gadgets continually appear, it's crucial to understand the basic technologies. Authors Nicolás Serrano, Josune Hernantes, and Gorka Gallardo examine current development approaches that can enhance the decision-making process.

Description: Software analytics guide practitioners in decision making throughout the software development process. In this context, prediction models help managers efficiently organize their resources and identify problems by analyzing patterns on existing project data in an intelligent and meaningful manner. Over the past decade, the authors have worked with software organizations to build metric repositories and predictive models that address process-, product-, and people-related issues in practice. This article shares their experience over the years, reflecting the expectations and outcomes both from practitioner and researcher viewpoints.

Description: IEEE Cloud Computing Magazine seeks editor in chief

Description: Agile processes seek "just enough" requirements. However, this focus on simple software solutions can come at the expense of solutions that meet more creative requirements. To explore alternatives, this article reports results from extending one agile process with creativity techniques in a project for a large media organization. Domain experts ranked the requirements generated with the process as more novel than baseline epics from the product backlog of the same project, while the requirements' usefulness increased overall after incubation over the duration of a sprint.

Description: As the last standardization effort was done in 2004, the software engineering curriculum is currently being revised. Haven't we reached the point where agile development should be part of all software engineering curricula? And if so, shouldn't new curriculum standards ensure that it is?

Description: Component-based development is a relatively new paradigm for software development, compared to more established approaches such as object-oriented analysis and design. The authors conducted a study to examine the ease-of-reuse perceptions of analysts in modeling business systems using a library of components versus a library of objects. A survey of the IT professionals who participated in the study showed that perceived components to be much easier to reuse than objects. Users also expressed significantly higher satisfaction with components and, by a large majority, a preference for reusing components to reusing objects.

Description: The L-band passive and active microwave geophysical model functions (GMFs) of ocean surface winds from the Aquarius data are derived. The matchups of Aquarius data with the Special Sensor Microwave Imager (SSM/I) and National Centers for Environmental Prediction (NCEP) winds were performed and were binned as a function of wind speed and direction. The radar HH GMF is in good agreement with the PALSAR GMF. For wind speeds above 10 $hbox{m}cdothbox{s}^{-1}$ , the L-band ocean backscatter shows positive upwind–crosswind (UC) asymmetry; however, the UC asymmetry becomes negative between about 3 and 8 $hbox{m}cdothbox{s}^{-1}$ . The negative UC (NUC) asymmetry has not been observed in higher frequency (above C-band) GMFs for ASCAT or QuikSCAT. Unexpectedly, the NUC symmetry also appears in the L-band radiometer data. We find direction dependence in the Aquarius $T_{rm BV}$ , $T_{rm BH}$ , and third Stokes data with peak-to-peak modulations increasing from about a few tenths to 2 K in the range of 10–25- $hbox{m}cdothbox{s}^{-1}$ wind speed. The validity of the GMFs is tested through application to wind and salinity retrieval from Aquarius data using the combined active–passive algorithm. Error assessment using the triple collocation analyses of SSM/I, NCEP, and Aquarius winds indicates that the retrieved Aquarius wind speed accuracy is excellent, with a random error of about 0.75 $hbox{m}cdothbox{s}^{-1}$ . The wind direction retrievals also appear reasonable and accurate above 10 $hbox{m}cdothbo- {s}^{-1}$ . The results of the error analysis indicate that the uncertainty of the GMFs for the wind speed correction of vertically polarized brightness temperatures is about 0.14 K for wind speed up to 10 $hbox{m}cdothbox{s}^{-1}$ .

Description: The local oscillators (LOs) of the Soil Moisture and Ocean Salinity mission payload are used to shift the operating frequency of the 72 receivers to an optimal intermediate frequency needed for the signal processing. The LO temperature variations produce phase errors in the visibility, which result in a blurring of the reconstructed brightness temperature (Tb) image. At the end of the commissioning phase, it was decided to calibrate the LO every 10 min while waiting for a more in-depth analysis. During short periods of time, the LO calibration has been performed every 2 min to assess the impact of a higher calibration rate on the quality of the data. In this paper, by means of a decimation experiment, the relative errors of 6- and 10-min calibration interval data sets are estimated using the 2 min as a reference. A noticeable systematic across- and along-track pattern of amplitude $pm$ 0.3 K is observed for Tb differences between 10 and 2 min, whereas this is reduced between 6 and 2 min. A simulation experiment confirms that the nature of such systematic pattern is due to the visibility phase errors induced by the LO calibration rate. Such pattern is propagated into the sea surface salinity (SSS) retrievals. Overall, the SSS error increase (relative to the 2 min SSS data) is about 0.39 and 0.14 psu for the 10- and 6-min data sets, respectively. This paper shows that a LO calibration rate of at least 6 min would noticeably improve the SSS retrievals.

Description: Radiometric measurements could provide continuous information about atmospheric conditions. In this paper, a sky status indicator (SSI) is proposed as a real-time recognition criterion for the detection, in particular, of the presence of rain events along the propagation path. The computation of the SSI is based on ground-based brightness temperature measurements, at 23.8 and 31.4 GHz, collected in Cabauw, Netherlands, in 2009 by the ESA Atmospheric Propagation and Profiling System (ATPROP) multichannel radiometer. A validation analysis is carried out between simulated data, which are computed by applying the radiative transfer equation to a database of radiosonde profiles collected in De Bilt, Netherlands, by the Royal Netherlands Meteorological Institute, and two data sets of radiometric observations at two elevation angles ( $theta$ equal to 90 $^{circ}$ and $theta$ equal to 69.6 $^{circ}$ ). The analysis based on SSI probability distribution functions has allowed for calculation of the boundary threshold values that are able to discriminate the status of the sky. Furthermore, performances of the SSI were validated against rainfall measurements collected at the ground by a rain gauge located near the ESA ATPROP multichannel radiometer.

Description: A new cloud dynamics and radiation database (CDRD) precipitation retrieval algorithm for satellite passive microwave (PMW) radiometer measurements has been developed. It represents a modification to and an improvement upon the conventional cloud radiation database (CRD) algorithms, which have always been prone to ambiguity. This part 2 paper of a series describes the methodology of the algorithm and the modeling verification analysis involved in creating a synthetic CDRD database for the Europe/Mediterranean basin region. This is followed by a proof-of-concept analysis, which demonstrates that the underlying CDRD theory based on use of meteorological parameters for reducing retrieval ambiguity is valid. This paper uses a regional/mesoscale model, applied in cloud resolving model (CRM) mode, to produce a large set of numerical simulations of precipitating storms and extended precipitating systems. The simulations are used for selection of millions of meteorological/microphysical vertical profiles within which surface rainfall is identified. For each of these profiles, top-of-atmosphere brightness temperature (TB) vectors are calculated (the vector dimension associated with the number of relevant cm–mm wavelengths and polarizations), based on an elaborate radiative-transfer equation (RTE) model system (RMS) coupled to the CRM. This entire body of simulation information is organized into the CDRD database, then used as a priori knowledge to guide a physical Bayesian retrieval algorithm in obtaining rainfall and associated precipitation parameters from the PMW satellite observations. We first prove the physical validity of our CRM-RMS simulations, by showing that the simulated TBs are in close agreement with observations. Agreement is demonstrated using dual-channel-frequency TB manifold sections, which quantify the degree of overlap between the simulated and observed TBs extracted from the full manifolds. Nevertheless, the salient result of this paper is a pro- f that the underlying CDRD theory is valid, found by combining subdivisions of the invoked meteorological parameter ranges of values and showing that such meteorological partitioning associates itself with distinct microphysical profiles. It is then shown that these profiles give rise to similar TB vectors, proving the existence of ambiguity in a CRD-type algorithm. Finally, we show that the CDRD methodology provides significant improvements in reducing retrieval ambiguity and retrieval error, especially for land surface backgrounds where contrasts are typically small between the rainfall TB signatures and surface emission signatures.

Description: The results of remote sensing temperature profiles measurements within a 0–600-m altitude range and total water content measurements during total (Kislovodsk, 2006; Novosibirsk, 2008) and partial (Moscow, 2011) solar eclipses, using microwave radiometers are presented. Initially, continuous data on temperature profiles are obtained at different altitudes before, during, and after total solar eclipses, using two single channel elevation scanning microwave temperature profilers. Terrestrial consequences of solar eclipses (especially total ones) are quite noticeable and important. Solar eclipses support unique, specific conditions, which gives the opportunity for various meteorological research. The most important indicator of thermodynamic processes occurring during solar eclipses is air temperature at different altitudes in the atmospheric boundary layer (ABL). The ABL temperature depends, in general, on the flux of solar radiation and some features of the ground (albedo, absorptivity, and emissivity) and the air (humidity). Temperature profile measurements are accompanied by solar radiation (with net-radiometer) and total water vapor (with microwave radiometers) measurements. The observation results of this paper will contribute detailed model calculations for clarifying meteorological effects of solar eclipses. Observations of the next total solar eclipse over Russia (August 12, 2026) can be used to verify our observational results.

Description: Snow grain size is the snowpack parameter that most affects the microwave snow emission. The specific surface area (SSA) of snow is a metric that allows rapid and reproducible field measurements and that well represents the grain size. However, this metric cannot be used directly in microwave snow emission models (MSEMs). The aim of this paper is to evaluate the suitability and the adaptations required for using the SSA in two MSEMs, i.e., the Dense Media Radiative Theory-Multilayer model (DMRT-ML) and the Helsinki University of Technology model (HUT n-layer), based on in situ radiometric measurements. Measurements of the SSA, using snow reflectance in the short-wave infrared, were taken at 20 snowpits in various environments (e.g., grass, tundra, and dry fen). The results show that both models required a scaling factor for the SSA values to minimize the root-mean-square error between the measured and simulated brightness temperatures. For DMRT-ML, the need for a scaling factor is likely due to the oversimplified representation of snow as spheres of ice with a uniform radius. We hypothesize that the need for a scaling factor is related to the grain size distribution of snow and the stickiness between grains. For HUT n-layer, using the SSA underestimates the attenuation by snow, particularly for snowpacks with a significant amount of depth hoar. This paper provides a reliable description of the grain size for DMRT-ML, which is of particular interest for the assimilation of satellite passive microwave data in snow models.

Description: Ice lens formation, which follows rain on snow events or melt-refreeze cycles in winter and spring, is likely to become more frequent as a result of increasing mean winter temperatures at high latitudes. These ice lenses significantly affect the microwave scattering and emission properties, and hence snow brightness temperatures that are widely used to monitor snow cover properties from space. To understand and interpret the spaceborne microwave signal, the modeling of these phenomena needs improvement. This paper shows the effects and sensitivity of ice lenses on simulated brightness temperatures using the microwave emission model of layered snowpacks coupled to a soil emission model at 19 and 37 GHz in both horizontal and vertical polarizations. Results when considering pure ice lenses show an improvement of 20.5 K of the root mean square error between the simulated and measured brightness temperature (Tb) using several in situ data sets acquired during field campaigns across Canada. The modeled Tbs are found to be highly sensitive to the vertical location of ice lenses within the snowpack.

Description: The Visual Computer Managed Security (Vicoms) framework assists programmers in coding access control for Java applications. Vicoms provides a transparent way of managing security aspects in enterprise-level applications, including legacy ones. It has been embedded within the Eclipse open source integrated development environment and used experimentally in several case studies, one of which is described in the article.

Description: In recent years, there has been growing interest on the part of the remote sensing community in using the Antarctic area for calibrating and validating data of low-frequency satellite-borne microwave radiometers. In particular, the East Antarctic Plateau appears to be suited for this purpose. The reasons for this interest are the size, structure, spatial homogeneity, and thermal stability of this area. This is particularly interesting for low-frequency microwave radiometers since, due to the low extinction of dry snow, the upper ice-sheet layer is almost transparent and the brightness temperature variability is therefore extremely small. In the context of calibration and validation activities of the European Space Agency's Soil Moisture and Ocean Salinity (SMOS) satellite, an experiment called DOMEX-2, which included radiometric L-band measurements, was carried out at the Italian–French base of Concordia located at Dome C in the East Antarctic Plateau from December 2008 to December 2010. Ground measurements (i.e., snow temperature at different depths, snow structure, meteorological data, etc.) were also collected during the experiment. This paper presents information on the experimental campaign, the characteristics of the radiometric measurements, and the main results. A comparison with SMOS data is also presented.

Description: The 12th Specialist Meeting on Microwave Radiometry and Remote Sensing of the Environment (MicroRad 2012) was held at Villa Mondragone, University of Rome "Tor Vergata," near Frascati, Italy, on March 5-9, 2012. The objective of MicroRad 2012 was to provide an open forum to report and discuss recent advances in the field of microwave radiometry, particularly with application to remote sensing of the environment. The meeting was highly successful, with more than 120 attendees representing 20 countries. There were 76 oral presentations and more than 40 posters. From the papers presented at MicroRad 2012 and others submitted specifically for this special issue, 12 were selected for inclusion in the special issue. The papers were carefully peer reviewed with the usual standards of the IEEE TGRS. As is evident from the table of contents, these papers span a broad range of microwave radiometry and remote sensing applications and reflect the interest in MicroRad and the vitality of research in this area.

Description: Vicarious cold calibration in the frequency range of 85–92 GHz is analyzed. Vicarious cold calibration cannot be applied at these frequencies as easily as at lower frequencies due to greater sensitivity to water vapor and hydrometeor scattering. The effects of that sensitivity are mitigated by selective filtering of the high-frequency brightness temperatures (TBs) to remove those data where large amounts of water vapor and/or hydrometeor scattering are present. Potential filtering algorithms are presented, and the performance of each with respect to vicarious cold calibration TB stability is characterized. A scattering-based precipitation filter that utilizes a combination of both the lower frequencies from 19 to 37 GHz and the frequencies from 85 to 92 GHz is shown to be the most effective and easily implemented filter. For horizontal polarization, the theoretical minimum TB at the higher frequencies occurs at an unphysically high sea surface temperature (SST), which makes the vicarious cold statistic more sensitive to the population of actual SST values as well as the higher amounts of water vapor associated with warm SSTs. The statistic is stabilized in this case by considering the difference between observed and simulated vicarious cold TBs. Intercalibration between two radiometers using the vicarious cold calibration double difference method at high frequencies is shown to be greatly improved when using the precipitation filter.

Description: After 2.5 years of the Soil Moisture and Ocean Salinity (SMOS) mission, the characterization of residual instrumental systematic errors in the measured brightness temperatures $(T_{B})$ is still rather poor. This, in turn, negatively impacts the sea surface salinity retrievals and, as such, notably limits the mission's success. The error mitigation methodology currently used operationally, the so-called Ocean Target Transformation (OTT), mixes both instrumental and model-induced errors. In this paper, it is proposed to distinguish errors by their type of impact on the $T_{B}$ images: mean brightness level, incidence angle dependence, and azimuth angle dependence. A new approach to characterize the azimuth-dependent errors is proposed. First, a careful data selection strategy is applied. Then, an empirically fitted model, which only accounts for the $T_{B}$ incidence angle dependence, is subtracted from the mean $T_{B}$ images of the selected data sets to estimate the systematic antenna-frame errors. The robustness of this methodology is assessed through the estimated anomaly pattern stability when computed for different geophysical conditions, periods of time, and latitudinal bands. The residual variability ranges from 0.03 K to 0.14 K, whereas the OTT variability is about 0.5 K. The new method is forward model independent and generic. It can therefore be applied to estimate the antenna-frame systematic errors over land and ice. Moreover, it proves to be very effective in separating different sources of error and can therefore be used to further characterize other error components and improve the various SMOS forward model terms.

Description: Terrain Observation by Progressive Scans (TOPS) synthetic aperture radar (SAR) and spotlight SAR are advanced SAR imaging modes for wide range swath and high resolution. In order to obtain a wider range coverage, azimuth multichannel is introduced in the literature. Since the azimuth bandwidth of beam steering SAR (BS-SAR; spotlight SAR, sliding spotlight SAR, or TOPS SAR) is much greater than that of a stripmap SAR, a signal reconstruction algorithm used for multichannel stripmap SAR may not be effective for multichannel BS-SAR. In this paper, a multichannel full-aperture azimuth processing algorithm is proposed for a BS-SAR. The key of this algorithm lies in the beam and the azimuth bandwidth compressions of multichannel signals in the Doppler–array and slow time–angle planes, respectively. Through compression processing, the beamwidth and the azimuth bandwidth are smaller than the available angle and equivalent pulse repeating frequency , respectively. Then, an improved post-Doppler STAP method is proposed to recover a 2-D spectrum. With the recovered signal, further processing can be utilized to focus the multichannel signal. Simulation and real data results show the effectiveness of the proposed algorithm.

Description: Remote sensing image fusion can integrate the spatial detail of panchromatic (PAN) image and the spectral information of a low-resolution multispectral (MS) image to produce a fused MS image with high spatial resolution. In this paper, a remote sensing image fusion method is proposed with sparse representations over learned dictionaries. The dictionaries for PAN image and low-resolution MS image are learned from the source images adaptively. Furthermore, a novel strategy is designed to construct the dictionary for unknown high-resolution MS images without training set, which can make our proposed method more practical. The sparse coefficients of the PAN image and low-resolution MS image are sought by the orthogonal matching pursuit algorithm. Then, the fused high-resolution MS image is calculated by combining the obtained sparse coefficients and the dictionary for the high-resolution MS image. By comparing with six well-known methods in terms of several universal quality evaluation indexes with or without references, the simulated and real experimental results on QuickBird and IKONOS images demonstrate the superiority of our method.

Description: The multichromatic analysis (MCA) uses interferometric pairs of SAR images processed at range subbands and explores the phase trend of each pixel as a function of the different central carrier frequencies to infer absolute optical path difference. This approach allows retrieving unambiguous height information on selected pixels, potentially solving the problem of spatial phase unwrapping, which is instead critical in the standard monochromatic processing. The method, based on concepts originally introduced by Madsen and Zebker, has been developed in previous work both theoretically and through simulations. This paper presents the first MCA experimental validation of the procedure, through application to a wideband SAR single-pass interferometric data set acquired by the AES-1 airborne sensor. An evaluation of the impact of the MCA processing parameters on the height estimation performances is obtained through a parametric analysis. The results confirm the indications derived by the theoretical analysis, demonstrating the feasibility of the MCA absolute phase measurement, provided that a sufficient bandwidth is available.

Description: With software analytics, software practitioners explore and analyze data to obtain insightful, actionable information for tasks regarding software development, systems, and users. The StackMine project produced a software analytics system for Microsoft product teams. The project provided lessons on applying software analytics technologies to positively impact software development practice. The lessons include focusing on problems that practitioners care about, using domain knowledge for correct data understanding and problem modeling, building prototypes early to get practitioners' feedback, taking into account scalability and customizability, and evaluating analysis results using criteria related to real tasks.

Description: This paper proposes a new semisupervised dimension reduction (DR) algorithm based on a discriminative locally enhanced alignment technique. The proposed DR method has two aims: to maximize the distance between different classes according to the separability of pairwise samples and, at the same time, to preserve the intrinsic geometric structure of the data by the use of both labeled and unlabeled samples. Furthermore, two key problems determining the performance of semisupervised methods are discussed in this paper. The first problem is the proper selection of the unlabeled sample set; the second problem is the accurate measurement of the similarity between samples. In this paper, multilevel segmentation results are employed to solve these problems. Experiments with extensive hyperspectral image data sets showed that the proposed algorithm is notably superior to other state-of-the-art dimensionality reduction methods for hyperspectral image classification.

Description: This paper presents a new framework for the development of generalized composite kernel machines for hyperspectral image classification. We construct a new family of generalized composite kernels which exhibit great flexibility when combining the spectral and the spatial information contained in the hyperspectral data, without any weight parameters. The classifier adopted in this work is the multinomial logistic regression, and the spatial information is modeled from extended multiattribute profiles. In order to illustrate the good performance of the proposed framework, support vector machines are also used for evaluation purposes. Our experimental results with real hyperspectral images collected by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration Jet Propulsion Laboratory's Airborne Visible/Infrared Imaging Spectrometer and the Reflective Optics Spectrographic Imaging System indicate that the proposed framework leads to state-of-the-art classification performance in complex analysis scenarios.

Description: For typical scanning microwave radiometers, a significant source of calibration error arises from thermal gradients on the hot load. Even when direct or reflected solar illumination is blocked, hot load gradients arise from thermal coupling between the target and the surface facing the target which is heated and cooled as the instrument orbits the earth. For the GlobalL Precipitation Measurement (GPM) Microwave Imager (GMI), a rotating metal annular ring called the “hot load tray” serves to guard the hot load against solar intrusion, and is the surface immediately facing the hot load during the majority of the scan. The planned GMI calibration algorithm corrects for the target gradients induced by thermal coupling between the hot load tray and hot load. The correction uses an empirically derived relationship between the target gradient and the temperature differential between the target and the tray. The correction is derived using target-level and GMI system-level calibration testing. The dual calibration of GMI, in connection with thermal vacuum calibration measurements, is a key aid to determining and correcting the hot load gradients.

Description: Satellite images have long been used to study surface manifestations of internal waves (IWs). More recently, marine X-band radar data have been employed to retrieve IW packet parameters. Marine radars have the advantage over satellite systems that their high temporal resolution enables the study of the IW evolution. Until today, no method to automatically detect IW surface signatures in marine radar data has been suggested. In this paper, we present a new fully automated tool to retrieve IW signatures from marine radar image sequences. First, after various preprocessing steps, the IW packet velocity is determined using a combination of localized Radon transform and cross-correlation techniques. Temporal averaging of the marine radar data significantly enhances the IW signatures. The knowledge of the IW packet velocity is used to correct for the IW motion, enabling us to extend the averaging period, which further enhances the IW signal. An IW-motion correction is necessary because, otherwise, the IW signal would become smeared if the averaging period were much longer than the time it takes the IW to propagate between radar resolution cells. The IW-enhanced images are then utilized for the IW signature analysis. Here, we identify local backscatter peaks and exploit the marine radar's high temporal resolution to distinguish signal from noise. The resulting series of IW soliton maps provides information on changes in soliton wavelength, velocity, and backscatter intensity. Our marine radar IW signature analysis tool therefore offers a great opportunity of studying the spatiotemporal evolution of IWs as they grow and decay.

Description: The potential of satellite passive microwave sensors to provide quantitative information about near-source volcanic ash cloud parameters is assessed. To this aim, ground-based microwave weather radar and spaceborne microwave radiometer observations are used together with forward-model simulations. The latter are based on 2-D simulations with the numerical plume model Active Tracer High-Resolution Atmospheric Model (ATHAM), in conjunction with the radiative transfer model Satellite Data Simulator Unit (SDSU) that is based on the deltaEddington approximation and includes Mie scattering. The study area is the Icelandic subglacial volcanic region. The analyzed case study is that of the Grímsvötn eruption in May 2011. ATHAM input parameters are adjusted using available ground data, and sensitivity tests are conducted to investigate the observed brightness temperatures and their variance. The tests are based on the variation of environmental conditions like the terrain emissivity, water vapor, and ice in the volcanic plume. Quantitative correlation analysis between ATHAM/SDSU forward-model columnar content simulations and available microwave radiometric brightness temperature measurements, derived from the Special Sensor Microwave Imager/Sounder (SSMIS), are encouraging in terms of both dynamic range and correlation coefficient. The correlation coefficients are found to vary from $-$ 0.37 to $-$ 0.63 for SSMIS channels from 91 to 183 $pm$ 1 GHz, respectively. The larger sensitivity of the brightness temperature at 183 $pm$ 1 GHz to the columnar content, with respect to other channels, allowed us to consider this channel as the basis for a model-based polynomial relationship of volcanic plume hei- ht as a function of the measured SSMIS brightness temperature.

Description: Bright curvilinear features arising from the geometry of man-made structures are characteristic of synthetic aperture radar (SAR) images of urban areas, particularly due to double-reflection mechanisms. An approach to urban earthquake damage detection using double-reflection line amplitude change in single-look images has been established in previous literature. Based on this method, this paper introduces an automated tool for fast, unsupervised damage detection in urban areas. Ridge-based curvilinear features are extracted from a preevent SAR image, and double-reflection candidates are selected using prior probability distributions derived from a simple geometrical building model. The candidate features are then used with the ratio of a pair of single preevent and postevent SAR single-look amplitude images to estimate damage levels. The algorithm is very efficient, with overall computational complexity of $O(Nlog k)$ for an $N$ -pixel image containing features of mean length $k$ . The technique is demonstrated using COSMO-SkyMed data covering L'Aquila, Italy, and Port-au-Prince, Haiti.

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Description: It is necessary to measure the sharpness of distributions in many situations. A class of functions is investigated in this paper. First, the relation between this class and sharpness is clarified, and this justifies this class as sharpness measures. Then, we analyze the performance of different sharpness measures and present a guide to select the sharpness measure. In addition, the relation of this class to the sparsity measure is addressed, which leads to a deeper understanding about sparsity. Finally, we show and discuss the application of this class in inverse synthetic aperture radar imaging.

Description: A detection of radio-frequency interference (RFI) in the space-borne microwave radiometer data is difficult under snow and sea ice-covered conditions. The existing methods such as a spectral difference technique or a principal component analysis (PCA) of RFI indices produce many false RFI signals near the boundary of Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets. In this paper, a double PCA (DPCA) method is developed for RFI detection over Greenland and Antarctic regions. It is shown that the new DPCA method is effective in detecting RFI signals in the C- and X-band radiometer channels of WindSat while removing the false RFI signals over Greenland and Antarctic. It also worked well in other snow-free or snow-rich regions such as winter data over the United States. The proposed DPCA can be applied to satellite radiometer data orbit-by-orbit or granule-by-granule and is thus applicable in an operational environment for fast processing and data dissemination.

Description: Advertisement: Now over three million documents in IEEE Xplore. Thank you for your authorship.

Description: We present a calibration technique for an acoustic imaging microphone array, combined with a digital camera. Computer vision and acoustic time of arrival data are used to obtain microphone coordinates in the camera reference frame. Our new method allows acoustic maps to be plotted onto the camera images without the need for additional camera alignment or calibration. Microphones and cameras may be placed in an ad-hoc arrangement and, after calibration, the coordinates of the microphones are known in the reference frame of a camera in the array. No prior knowledge of microphone positions, inter-microphone spacings, or air temperature is required. This technique is applied to a spherical microphone array and a mean difference of 3 mm was obtained between the coordinates obtained with this calibration technique and those measured using a precision mechanical method.

Description: A super-resolution (SR) method based on compressive sensing (CS), structural self-similarity (SSSIM), and dictionary learning is proposed for reconstructing remote sensing images. This method aims to identify a dictionary that represents high resolution (HR) image patches in a sparse manner. Extra information from similar structures which often exist in remote sensing images can be introduced into the dictionary, thereby enabling an HR image to be reconstructed using the dictionary in the CS framework. We use the K-Singular Value Decomposition method to obtain the dictionary and the orthogonal matching pursuit method to derive sparse representation coefficients. To evaluate the effectiveness of the proposed method, we also define a new SSSIM index, which reflects the extent of SSSIM in an image. The most significant difference between the proposed method and traditional sample-based SR methods is that the proposed method uses only a low-resolution image and its own interpolated image instead of other HR images in a database. We simulate the degradation mechanism of a uniform 2 $times$ 2 blur kernel plus a downsampling by a factor of 2 in our experiments. Comparative experimental results with several image-quality-assessment indexes show that the proposed method performs better in terms of the SR effectivity and time efficiency. In addition, the SSSIM index is strongly positively correlated with the SR quality.

Description: This paper presents a method and experimental results for near-surface wind sensing using reflected Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) signals received on a spacecraft. The estimation method proposed involves four steps. First, the bistatic radar cross section (BRCS) of the received signal is estimated from the measurements. Second, the BRCS measurements are calibrated to agree with existing theoretical and empirical wind–wave models. Next, a geometric optics-based scattering model is used to estimate the sea surface slopes, based on the reflection geometry and the measured BRCS. Finally, the surface winds are estimated using an empirically derived function relating the surface mean square slopes to near-surface wind speed. The accuracy of the proposed inversion technique is then tested using a set of 25 space-based GNSS reflection measurements over a range of wind speeds. These measurements were all taken in the proximity of ocean buoys which provided in situ ocean wind speed information. The wind estimates from the buoys were then compared with the wind retrievals made from the measurements and found to be accurate to a root-mean-square error of 1.84 m/s. Additionally, the potential error sources in the measurements are analyzed, including a simulation of the effects of wind direction on the BRCS measurements. This first demonstration of space-based GNSS scatterometry using a small set of sample measurements will hopefully provide a benchmark and example for future experiments.

Description: There is an error in the above-named article [ibid.,vol. 51, no. 4, pp. 2119??2127, Apr. 2013] regarding the definition and the implementation of equation (3), defining the proposed temporal smoothing index (TSI). The correct formula is provided. These corrections do not change any of the general conclusions of the paper, but some of the comments regarding the interpretation of this table are revised.

Description: In this paper, we present a transform scheme where a secondary transform is applied after the conventional DCT for intra as well as inter prediction residues. Our approach is applicable to any block-based video codec that employs transforms along the horizontal and vertical direction separably. The secondary transform is applied to the lower K ( ${rm K}={4}$ or 8) frequency coefficients of the output of conventional DCT at block with dimensions 8 and larger. The proposed transform scheme has low complexity as it is applied only to the top-left portion of the DCT output, especially in the context of large blocks such as 32 $,times,$ 32 where an alternate non-DCT 32 $,times,$ 32 transform would have a prohibitive implementation hardware cost. The proposed technique is single-pass, and the choice of whether to use the secondary transform is solely based on the prediction direction for intra residue, and on transform unit location in the prediction unit for the inter residue. The scheme requires no additional signaling information or R-D search. Our simulation results show that the proposed transform scheme provides significant BD-rate improvement over the conventional DCT-based coding scheme. Finally, we also show how to implement the proposed secondary transforms with low latency in hardware.

Description: In this paper, we describe a novel algorithm for unsupervised segmentation of images with low depth of field (DOF). First of all, a multi-scale reblurring model is used to detect the object of interest (OOI) in saliency space. Then, to determine the boundary of OOI, an active contour model based on hybrid energy function is proposed. In this model, a global energy item related with the saliency map is adopted to find the global minimum, and a local energy term regarding the low DOF image is used to improve the segmentation precision. In addition, an adaptive parameter is attached to this model to balance the weight of global and local energy. Furthermore, an unsupervised curve initialization method is designed to reduce the number of evolution iterations. Finally, we conduct experiments on various low DOF images, and the results demonstrate the high robustness and precision of the proposed approach.

Description: In this paper, we propose a novel method that treats pose estimation as a problem with the constraints of human segmentation consistency from single images. Different from the previous paper, we integrate pose estimation and object segmentation into a joint optimization. With the support of segmentation consistency, we can obtain more reliable pose results. Through analyzing the energy function of pose estimation and human segmentation, we convert the pose estimation into a binary optimization problem that has the same formation as segmentation. The top-down pose shape cues, bottom-up visual cues, and the consistency constraints that penalize the mismatching of pose and human foreground are incorporated into our final objective function. Qualitative and quantitative experimental results demonstrate the merits of our method in pose estimation on Ramanan benchmark and Buffy data sets.

Description: A real-time and accurate object detection framework, ${rm C}^{4}$ , is proposed in this paper. ${rm C}^{4}$ achieves 20 fps speed and the state-of-the-art detection accuracy, using only one processing thread without resorting to special hardware such as GPU. The real-time accurate object detection is made possible by two contributions. First, we conjecture (with supporting experiments) that contour is what we should capture and signs of comparisons among neighboring pixels are the key information to capture contour cues. Second, we show that the CENTRIST visual descriptor is suitable for contour based object detection, because it encodes the sign information and can implicitly represent the global contour. When CENTRIST and linear classifier are used, we propose a computational method that does not need to explicitly generate feature vectors. It involves no image preprocessing or feature vector normalization, and only requires $O(1)$ steps to test an image patch. ${rm C}^{4}$ is also friendly to further hardware acceleration. It has been applied to detect objects such as pedestrians, faces, and cars on benchmark data sets. It has comparable detection accuracy with state-of-the-art methods, and has a clear advantage in detection speed.

Description: Previous image clutter metrics were proposed on the thought that clutter was just a perceptual effect, while we identify clutter as both perceptual and cognitive effects. Under this identification, we give a new definition of image clutter metric by analyzing the research results in the fields of visual psychology and psychophysics. According to the definition, we further put forward a DisSIMilarity (DSIM) based image clutter metric, which can also be taken as a kind of HVS-based signal-to-clutter ratio. The earlier image clutter metrics produced limited success in predicting targeting performance mainly since they did not consider brain cognitive characteristics. We develop a brain cognitive dissimilarity measure (BCDM) as a quantitative estimate of the selection weights which are allocated by brain attentional mechanism to affect visual selection processes. A human vision perceptual dissimilarity measure (VPDM), fully embodying vision perceptual properties, is first established between the target and clutter images, and then we utilize the BCDM between the two images as selection weights to pool the VPDM to be a clutter metric, which can be called DSIM metric. The metric is tested in Search_2 dataset provided by TNO Human Factors Research Institute of Netherlands. Error analysis and correlation tests demonstrate that the DSIM metric makes a more significant improvement than previously proposed metrics in predicting 62 observers' targeting performances including detection probability, false alarm probability and search time.

Description: Despite continuous improvements in optical flow in the last three decades, the ability for optical flow algorithms to handle illumination variation is still an unsolved challenge. To improve the ability to interpret apparent object motion in video containing illumination variation, an illumination-robust optical flow method is designed. This method decouples brightness into reflectance and illumination components using a stochastic technique; reflectance is given higher weight to ensure robustness against illumination, which is suppressed. Illumination experiments using the Middlebury and University of Oulu databases demonstrate the decoupled method's improvement when compared with state-of-the-art. In addition, a novel technique is implemented to visualize optical flow output, which is especially useful to compare different optical flow methods in the absence of the ground truth.