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  • Articles  (75,372)
  • 1975-1979  (75,372)
  • Mathematics  (38,896)
  • Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering  (36,476)
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  • Books  (121)
  • Articles  (75,372)
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  • 1
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Ground water 17 (1979), S. 0 
    ISSN: 1745-6584
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering , Geosciences
    Notes: Few studies have been performed on the occurrence of enterovirus contamination of ground water. In this study, 99 ground-water samples were examined for the presence of enteroviruses, total bacteria, fecal coliforms, and fecal streptococci by standard methods. Enteroviruses were isolated from 20% of the samples. Viruses were isolated from 12 samples which contained no detectable fecal organisms per 100 ml. No statistical correlation between presence of virus and bacteriological indicators could be determined. The widespread failure of current bacteriological standards to indicate the presence of potentially pathogenic enteroviruses in ground water is an area of concern that requires more study.
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  • 2
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Ground water 17 (1979), S. 0 
    ISSN: 1745-6584
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering , Geosciences
    Notes: Flow to wells in leaky artesian aquifers is intimately related to changes in aquitard storage, well storage capacity, and degree of well penetration. The manner and extent to which these and other factors affect water levels may be evaluated with aquifer test data. Families of type curves describe time-drawdown in the aquifer and aquitard under complex aquifer and well penetration conditions. Analysis of leaky artesian aquifer test data is possible with the array of equations derived largely in the 1950's through 1970's. Erroneous data analysis will result unless complicating factors are fully recognized and taken into account. A review of leaky artesian aquifer test evaluation methods is presented in this paper together with the field application of selected methods to foster greater use of current theories.
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  • 3
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Ground water 17 (1979), S. 0 
    ISSN: 1745-6584
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering , Geosciences
    Notes: Illinois aquifers furnish approximately 233 mgd (10.2 m3/s) of water to 677 public-water supplies outside the six-county area of northeastern Illinois. Ground water is usually obtained from sand-and-gravel deposits in the glacial drift or from limestone or sandstone formations in the underlying bedrock. The most favorable ground-water conditions are found in the northern third and the southern tip of the State, while, elsewhere, major aquifers are sand-and-gravel deposits of the Mississippi, Illinois, buried Mahomet, Wabash, Ohio, Kaskaskia, and Embarrass valleys.A brief review was made of data and information in the State Water Survey files for each public ground-water supply, and an assessment was given as adequate, marginal, or deficient, in terms of present demands. Twenty-four supplies were studied in greater detail, including calculations of aquifer sustained yields. The study indicated that 39 supplies were marginal and four were judged deficient in meeting current demands. The majority of the marginal and deficient supplies are located in the central third of the State; but so are most of the supplies (outside of north-eastern Illinois).The study represents the first of a three-part plan to: (1) define problem areas and determine priorities for studies in greater detail, (2) conduct regional studies, including test drilling, in problem areas to determine how great the water resource is, and (3) determine the water resource alternatives available to public ground-water supplies that are found to be inadequate.
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  • 4
    ISSN: 1745-6584
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering , Geosciences
    Notes: An industrial waste liquid containing organonitrile compounds and nitrate ion has been injected into the lower limestone of the Floridan aquifer near Pensacola, Florida since June 1975. Chemical analyses of water from monitor wells and backflow from the injection well indicate that organic carbon compounds are converted to CO2 and nitrate is converted to N2. These transformations are caused by bacteria immediately after injection, and are virtually completed within 100 m of the injection well. The zone near the injection well behaves like an anaerobic filter with nitrate respiring bacteria dominating the microbial flora in this zone.Sodium thiocyanate contained in the waste is unaltered during passage through the injection zone and is used to detect the degree of mixing of injected waste liquid with native water at a monitor well 312 m (712 ft) from the injection well. The dispersivity of the injection zone was calculated to be 10 m (33 ft). Analyses of samples from the monitor well indicate 80 percent reduction in chemical oxygen demand and virtually complete loss of organonitriles and nitrate from the waste liquid during passage from the injection well to the monitor well. Bacterial densities were much lower at the monitor well than in backflow from the injection well.
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  • 5
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Ground water 17 (1979), S. 0 
    ISSN: 1745-6584
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering , Geosciences
    Notes: Abstract. This investigation was to determine whether data on irrigation-well registration forms as reported by well drillers can be used in hydrologic studies. Transmissivity maps were prepared for Hamilton County, Nebraska using only specific capacity values computed from yield and drawdown data, as reported on irrigation well-registration forms. On one map each control point was the mean of the transmissivity values calculated for all wells in a section. On a second map each control point was the mean of the means for four contiguous sections sharing a common corner. The second map was similar to that of a previously prepared map based on control point values computed from specific capacities of selected wells, test hole logs, and geologic interpretations. These results suggest that reported registration data for a given area have a normal population distribution. In situations where individual data are unverified the data base can be treated as samples of a population where the mean of the means of several samples for adjacent areas is representative of actual field conditions.
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  • 6
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Ground water 17 (1979), S. 0 
    ISSN: 1745-6584
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering , Geosciences
    Notes: A new method of testing anisotropic, inhomogeneous multiple aquifer systems developed by the author makes use of small diameter bore construction techniques and enables simultaneous testing of superposed aquifers and aquitards (aquicludes).Because of the low cost of the method the hydraulic properties of the multiple aquifer system can be determined at many sites distributed throughout the area of interest, enabling simulation of the local and regional ground-water flow conditions and other hydrological characteristics of the system.Since its development in 1964 the technique improved and was employed in ground-water investigations. Data and results from the inhomogeneous, anisotropic multiple aquifer system west of Melbourne are given.
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  • 7
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Ground water 17 (1979), S. 0 
    ISSN: 1745-6584
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering , Geosciences
    Notes: Chemical and isotopic analyses were made of water from wells in and downgradient from a landfill to determine chemical and isotopic effects of generation and migration of leachate on ground water. The distribution and wide concentration range of oxygen and methane permit the delineation of an anaerobic zone, a regional oxygenated zone and an intermediate zone. The ratio of reduced nitrogen to nitrate indicates location of reducing fronts as the leachate migrates. The pH of the native ground water is low (≥5.0) primarily because of the low pH of rainfall and the lack of calcareous or other soluble minerals in the aquifer material. The pH is higher (∼6.6) in the leachate because of generation of carbon dioxide, ammonia, and methane. The native ground water has a low TDS (80 mg/l) while the leachate has an average TDS of 2800 mg/l and is primarily a NaHCO3 type water. Sulfate concentrations are extremely low and H2S was not detected.We suggest that a major source of cations may be their exchange from the clays by the ammonium generated in the leachate. High concentrations of Fe and Mn are attributed to a source in the refuse but more important to reduction of oxide cements and coatings resulting from degradation of organic matter. The main source of bicarbonate is from organic degradation with minimal CO2 from the soil zone. At one landfill site 52% of the total alkalinity is attributed to organic compounds, mainly organic acid anions. The δ13C of bicarbonate in the leachate is exceedingly heavy (+18.400/00) which results from fractionation during the formation of methane. The 10 per mil deuterium enrichment of water may be due to decomposition of deuterium-enriched compounds and bacterial processes that preferentially consume the lighter hydrogen isotope.
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  • 8
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Ground water 17 (1979), S. 0 
    ISSN: 1745-6584
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering , Geosciences
    Notes: Rapid fissure flow has been recognised as an important factor in understanding the hydraulic behaviour of the Lincolnshire Limestone aquifer of eastern England. A study of the hydrogeology of a Lincolnshire Limestone spring-fed catchment enables three zones of discharge to be defined, based on their relative elevation along the valley floor. Comparison of the discharge characteristics of each zone reveals the existence of rapid ground-water flow associated with a discrete fissure system. Comparison of spring discharges and ground-water storage during a period of “high,”“low” and “typical” recharge enables a conceptual flow model of the aquifer to be constructed. A two-layered model is proposed, in which the secondary zone (upper unit) is characterised by higher transmissivity and lower storativity than the primary zone (lower unit). In addition, there is evidence of a rapid increase in transmissivity with water-table elevation in the secondary zone. The areal distribution of the secondary zone is associated with a net work dry valleys. The spatial distribution of the two zones is explained by geological structure, lithological variations and the post-glacial history of the area. A two-layered model is developed with these concepts in mind in order to simulate the spring discharges. Once proven, the model can be integreated with the regional hydrogeology and incorporated into existing digital models of the aquifer.
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  • 9
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Ground water 17 (1979), S. 0 
    ISSN: 1745-6584
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering , Geosciences
    Notes: Abstract. An evaluation was made of the usefulness of the gamma-ray logger in delineating glacial-drift and bedrock stratigraphy in southwestern Ohio. The logger was useful in delineating gross stratigraphic units in a glacial outwash aquifer. The gamma log also provided a clearer indication of the clay content of sand and gravel units than did the driller's log.On the uplands, away from the valleys filled with glacial outwash, the logger could not be used to locate the thin, poorly-sorted, interstadial sand and gravel deposits between thicker till sheets. It could, however, be used to distinguish formational contacts in the upper Cincinnatian Series.
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  • 10
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Ground water 17 (1979), S. 0 
    ISSN: 1745-6584
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering , Geosciences
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  • 11
    ISSN: 1745-6584
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering , Geosciences
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  • 12
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Ground water 17 (1979), S. 0 
    ISSN: 1745-6584
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering , Geosciences
    Notes: Injection of waste liquids into Florida's subsurface is physically feasible in many places but should be accompanied by monitoring of the waste-receiving aquifer system in addition to the injection facility. Monitoring of the interaction of factors including hydrogeologic conditions, well construction, waste volumes and characteristics, and potable-water sources is desirable to assure that fresh-water resources are not being adversely affected. An effective aquifer-system monitoring program includes on-site wells located close to an injection well and open to the next-higher permeable stratum, satellite wells located hundreds to several thousands of feet from an injection well and open to the receiving aquifer, and regional wells located miles from individual injection wells and open to the receiving aquifer. An extensive aquifer-system monitoring program associated with two waste-injection facilities near Pensacola, Florida, has provided data which have aided hydrologists to understand the aquifer system's response to the injection and, accordingly, to evaluate the potential for affecting the area's fresh-water resources.
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  • 13
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Ground water 17 (1979), S. 0 
    ISSN: 1745-6584
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering , Geosciences
    Notes: Overexploitation of ground water in Krishni-Hindon interstream region (Lat. 29°05′N-29°29′N and Long. 77°19′E-77°32′E) in Uttar Pradesh, India, prompted us to carry out aquifer modeling studies. The area lies in Gangetic alluvial plain. The interconnections in the phreatic aquifer and the lower semiconfined aquifer led to the assumption of a single-story aquifer for which an R-C analog model was constructed.The input-output quantities in the model have been simulated using current/voltage generators and current sinks which are appropriately programmed in time-domain with the help of wave-form synthesizers for a realistic representation of the field system.The model study shows that the aquifer can sustain the present output rate of 200 mcm/year without much damage to the ground-water regime. In another scheme, an annual increase of 5% in exploitation rate, shows deleterious effects on the aquifer. Decreased rainfall/ droughts would worsen the situation.The influence of hydraulic connectivity between the aquifer and the Krishni-Hindon river system is quite significant. If the present exploitation rate were to continue for 20 years, the annual inflow to the aquifer from rivers is estimated to increase by about 36.0 mem.More hydrogeological data is required for further validation and refinement of the model.
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  • 14
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Ground water 17 (1979), S. 0 
    ISSN: 1745-6584
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering , Geosciences
    Notes: Generally, the 208 planning approach is deficient in a number of ways. Its origin lies in Public Law 92-500, which focuses on protection of surface water and special uses of water for fish, wildlife, and recreation. Little ground water is used for these purposes. Nonpoint sources have not been defined in terms that have hydrogeologic significance. Local and State regulatory agencies have often been unsuccessful in controlling ground-water pollution, yet the 208 approach tends to disregard the reasons for this situation. The reasons for ground-water pollution in an area must be understood before meaningful control measures can be enacted. These include both technical and institutional problems.Planners are placed in the forefront of many 208 programs at the local level and often their backgrounds are inadequate in ground water. There is a great lack of ground-water professionals in regulatory agencies involved, particularly in the Southwest. This deficiency is paramount at high levels and in many regional offices of EPA. There are no provisions in the approach to insure that qualified ground-water geologists or hydrologists will be involved. Academic training in ground water is presently oriented toward ground-water development and not pollution. Lastly, public participation is greatly limited by the general lack of knowledge regarding ground water and its pollution.Successful 208 programs in terms of ground water have been enacted when ground-water professionals have had major roles. Changes are necessary in the academic training of ground-water geologists and hydrologists. The public must be educated concerning the long-term consequences of ground-water pollution. Lastly, ground-water professionals must assume the leadership in ground-water protection.
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  • 15
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Ground water 17 (1979), S. 0 
    ISSN: 1745-6584
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering , Geosciences
    Notes: It is herein submitted that the nearly universal phrase “shall not cause pollution of the ground waters and surface waters” written into the State regulations for waste disposal operations not only refutes a sound technical alternative, but is impractical, uneconomical and often unworkable.It is a fact that all ground waters are not created equal, as governed by certain irrefutable physical laws including the water budget equation and Darcy's Law which states that the quantity of ground water available is subject to wide variation from location to location. While an aquifer is a relative term, major, minor and nonaquifers can be identified within a given geographic area with respect to cost-effective ground-water resource development. Likewise, the natural quality of ground water is also a significant variable with certain parameters often exceeding drinking-water standards. The land application of wastes overlying the ground waters of an area should, therefore, also be subject to a certain degree of flexibility for prudent management of both the waste operation and the ground-water resources.Numerous investigations and empirical data can be cited to substantiate the fact that many wastes and their associated leachates can be safely assimilated into the environment with reliance on attenuation and controlled degradation of ground water by utilization of a mixing zone or zone of renovation with a specified distance from a disposal operation. As increased emphasis is placed on the land disposal/management of wastes/residuals and as the cost of these operations continue to mount, it is strongly recommended that controlled ground-water degradation be utilized in those areas where a “true” ground-water resource does not exist. Protection of such a “true” ground-water resource is obviously necessary as our demands for a potable water supply also continue to grow.
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  • 16
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Ground water 17 (1979), S. 0 
    ISSN: 1745-6584
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering , Geosciences
    Notes: Ground-water computer models are, certainly, toys which provide intellectual stimulation. They can be useful tools for advancement of the ground-water profession, but I believe that they have been blown out of proportion and that this might cause irreparable damage to our profession.It is important to see where computer models fit into the ground-water problem-solving process. I believe that ground-water computer programs are simply a complicated “turn the crank” tool for making projections. They're one type of tool out of several which requires aquifer and confining bed characteristics to facilitate making projections. A second approach for making projections involves the direct extrapolation or manipulation of data which does not require transmissivity, storage coefficient, leakance, and other interpreted characteristics. Further, I believe that the collection and evaluation of data are of greater importance than the projection methods and/or tools in arriving at answers.Advantages of ground-water computer models include: speedy analyses once a program is working, ability to handle many parameters, and utilization of a large data base. The disadvantages include: use of computer models as end goals, tendency for misapplications, time-consuming setup, a waste of time and money in some cases, and diversion of human talent from useful ground-water work.
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  • 17
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Ground water 17 (1979), S. 0 
    ISSN: 1745-6584
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering , Geosciences
    Notes: While it is true that waterborne diseases are still with us, and probably always will be, we cannot classify them as a current threat in the sense that they were 100 years ago. The discovery that chlorine would disinfect water supplies removed these diseases from a “current threat” category to the “historical lesson” category. We are not faced with unknowns which we are unable to attack. We have only to look at what others have done to protect themselves and follow the same or improved practices.If the record of waterborne outbreaks in public water supplies in this country from the end of World War II up to the present is examined, it will be found that all are caused by breakdowns in disinfection procedures or carelessness. The record is replete with statements such as “improper disinfection after repair,”“breakdown or lack of disinfecting equipment,”“back siphonage,” and other similar statements all pointing to failure to follow practices which the history of water treatment has shown to be necessary for protection against waterborne disease. Carelessness allows recurrence of disease outbreaks. If the lessons of history were followed, the conquest of waterborne disease transmission by public water systems could be complete.
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  • 18
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Ground water 17 (1979), S. 0 
    ISSN: 1745-6584
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering , Geosciences
    Notes: The increasing use of ground water and its true role as a source of water supplies in the United States have sometimes been interpreted incorrectly. The total use of ground water has indeed increased tremendously during the last 20 years (by almost 80%), but so has the total use of water (over 70%). And ground water is still far from being a primary source of water supplies. In 1975, only 20% of the total amount of water withdrawn in the United States for various uses came from ground-water sources.Statistical analysis of ground-water data for the period 1950-1975 has shown that the ground-water usage is changing only very slowly. Relation of ground-water use to total water use expressed in percent was used as an indicator of changes of ground-water use patterns. This percentage has not changed significantly, and it has fluctuated around 19%. In 1975, only 6 States used more ground water than surface water for their water supplies, and in 23 States ground-water use was less than 10% of total use. Even more unfavorable is the magnitude of change in ratio of ground-water use relative to total water use. From 1955 to 1975 only 13 States show an increase in the ratio. In 28 States the ratio has decreased, and in 7 it has remained the same.
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  • 19
    ISSN: 1745-6584
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering , Geosciences
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  • 20
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Ground water 17 (1979), S. 0 
    ISSN: 1745-6584
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering , Geosciences
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  • 21
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Ground water 17 (1979), S. 0 
    ISSN: 1745-6584
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering , Geosciences
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  • 22
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Ground water 17 (1979), S. 0 
    ISSN: 1745-6584
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering , Geosciences
    Notes: An objective view of the need for ground-water quality standards requires that an individual recognize the value that ground water contributes to the water supply needs of our nation. A vast number of people living in rural areas and a large number of communities are dependent upon ground water as their sole source of water for domestic, industrial, commercial, and agricultural needs.This large use and dependency upon ground water dictates that these resources are valuable and must be protected for both present day and future uses. There are many examples where present methods of disposal of wastes generated in America have not been satisfactory from an environmental standpoint, with an exception of projects where disposal sites have been properly designed, operated, and managed for protection of the ground water.One possible solution for ground-water protection is the establishment of ground-water quality standards. The purpose of such standards is to protect the public health and welfare and maintain the quality of ground waters in all usable aquifers for individual, public, industrial, and agricultural water supplies. A legal basis must exist and the prescribed steps must be followed as dictated by the rule making process. The primary aim of such standards is to prevent the degradation of ground waters such as they will not become a public health hazard or harm the users of the ground water.The backbone of such a standard rests on the completion of a hydrogeological study which is necessary to determine background water quality information, set up the monitoring program and outline sampling to determine when water quality changes are taking place and what is a significant change.
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  • 23
    Electronic Resource
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    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Ground water 17 (1979), S. 0 
    ISSN: 1745-6584
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering , Geosciences
    Notes: Half the population depends on ground water for domestic uses. Use is increasing 25 percent per decade. Ground water is generally used with little or no treatment.Some persons would transfer the discharge of our waste products from contaminated surface streams to the land and thus relatively clean ground waters.No standards exist that protect ground-water quality. Research necessary to give assurance that natural interaction of waste water and soils will remove, to acceptable levels, potentially harmful contaminants, organic and inorganic, that permeate today's waste streams and today's health concerns, has not been done.Success reports on land treatment of waste water have a not evaluated deterioration of ground water from organic contamination. Most waste waters contain synthetic organics in varying concentrations. EPA recommends their reduction in drinking water to the lowest possible level.Most instances of ground-water contamination have been discovered after drinking water is contaminated. Unless the public is willing to treat ground water as it does water from surface streams, greater control of land disposal practices must be exercised. Current practice does not indicate the necessary controls are contemplated or recognized. It follows that the widespread use of the land treatment alternative is, in reality, an accident waiting to happen.
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  • 24
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    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Ground water 17 (1979), S. 0 
    ISSN: 1745-6584
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering , Geosciences
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  • 25
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    Ground water 17 (1979), S. 0 
    ISSN: 1745-6584
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering , Geosciences
    Notes: The Nation's ground-water resources constitute a vast and often unprotected resource. The Environmental Protection Agency is about to launch a number of programs designed to protect what is, in many cases, a virtually non-renewable resource. Separate regulatory activities mandated under the Safe Drinking Water Act, the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act and the Clean Water Act must be carefully coordinated if they are to be effective.The current implementation efforts within the agency are being framed in view of our major principles which will be the focus of public comment in the months ahead. These principles are:First, the administration of the related programs will be a cooperative effort involving Federal, State and local governments, all of which must participate in formulating the program if it is to be effective.Second, the focus of the programs will be on the prevention of contamination rather than on its treatment at the point of withdrawal.Third, the applicable standards will be based primarily on technology rather than ambient ground-water quality considerations since the effects of discharges upon ambient quality are complex, difficult to predict, and of long duration.Fourth, there is a need to balance environmental protection, energy development and continued economic prosperity objectives so that the resulting programs fully protect public health while being realistically implementable.All of us—government, industry and citizens, through acts of commission or omission—have contributed to the potential problem. We must work together if we are to get on with the important task of protecting the quality of the Nation's ground-water resources.
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  • 26
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    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Ground water 16 (1978), S. 0 
    ISSN: 1745-6584
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering , Geosciences
    Notes: Hydraulic conductivity studies of a consolidated pozzolanic material indicate that heat-shrinkable tubing can be utilized to encase cylinders for use in a permeameter. The materials required for encasement of a sample include: heat-shrinkable tubing, hose clamps, polyvinyl chloride discs, glass tubing, and an electric oven. The procedure requires that the assembled PVC discs, filters, shrinkable tubing, and sample be placed on a support stand in an electric oven for three to four minutes at a temperature between 450–500° F. Upon removal from the oven, hose clamps are placed around each PVC disc. The method has several advantages. It saves time and expenses over conventional methods such as pneumatic pressurized core holders or triaxial testing units and preserves the original interstitial bore spaces of the sample.
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  • 27
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    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Ground water 15 (1977), S. 0 
    ISSN: 1745-6584
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering , Geosciences
    Notes: Six types of vegetation were established successfully on lysimeters containing sanitary landfill materials. The vegetation grew well with the roots penetrating several refuse layers within one year. Leachate analysis indicated that vegetation and evapotranspiration (ET) reduced leachate volume and increased the rate of refuse decomposition. This was accompanied by production of a more potent leachate and a substantial increase in cumulative chemical oxygen demand. Therefore, this study suggests more potential ground-water pollution in a shorter period of time when vegetation is planted on a landfill. The net effect of ET on the stabilization of any particular landfill will be the result of a complex interaction involving climate, vegetation, soil type, cover material, landfill geometry, and other variables. This makes extrapolation of our results to a particular field situation rather difficult.
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    Notes: The anisotropic, areal hydraulic conductivity of the Felix No. 2 coal (Eocene, Wasatch Formation) has been defined in a four-well pump test at a site in the Powder River Basin of northeastern Wyoming. The direction of maximum hydraulic conductivity of the subbituminous coal bed bears N59°E and is associated with a horizontal hydraulic conductivity of 0.27 m/day. The direction of minimum hydraulic conductivity bears N31°W and is associated with a horizontal hydraulic conductivity of 0.15 m/day. The direction of maximum hydraulic conductivity approximately corresponds to the trend of the prominent face cleat in the coal, while the direction of minimum hydraulic conductivity corresponds to the trend of the butt cleat. The cleat orientation appears related to the alignment of major structural features of the region. Prediction of the direction of both maximum and minimum horizontal hydraulic conductivity in near-horizontal coal beds appears possible. However, either the cleat orientation of the bed or the alignment of the controlling fold structure must be known or obtainable.
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    Notes: The concept of the observation well as a measuring instrument with its own response characteristics is developed, and a method for response evaluation is derived based on methods of slug-test analysis. The effect of well response time upon the results of semiconfined aquifer tests is calculated and a series of type curves is produced. The ambiguity of observation well response affected leaky aquifer tests is demonstrated.A method for calculating well response time based on estimates of aquifer parameters and observation well dimensions is also presented to aid the proper design of aquifer tests. It is recommended that a slug test should be performed on every observation well used in confined or semiconfined aquifer tests.
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    Notes: Sulfate sorption data determined from laboratory investigations were used to predict movement of sulfate during a field experiment of artificial ground-water recharge in a basin near Lubbock, Texas. Laboratory studies confirmed that sulfate sorption is controlled in the system by surface area, content of iron oxides and hydroxides, and pH. Predicted sulfate distribution in the unsaturated zone was made by assuming constant one-dimensional flow. Where these assumptions were met, predictions were generally good at shallow depths and for short times.At greater depths and longer times, these assumptions combined with other factors, such as changes in effective porosity, variable mineralogy, changing hydrodynamic dispersion coefficients, and variable infiltration rates contributed to the failure of the predicted values to match the observed data.It appears that sulfate distribution in the unsaturated zone during artificial recharge can be predicted by using easily derived laboratory data if the flow conditions in the field can be described adequately.
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    Notes: The objective of this study was to develop surface electrical resistivity methods for estimating hydraulic conductivities in glacial outwash materials. Aquifer electrical resistivities were determined from the results of Schlumberger electrical soundings at six sites in southern Rhode Island where pumping tests had previously been made. Hydraulic conductivities and transmissivities determined from pumping tests were then correlated with resistivities obtained from electrical soundings. Results indicate that electrical resistivities determined from soundings can be used to predict aquifer hydraulic conductivities; an empirical relation between aquifer electrical resistivity and aquifer hydraulic conductivity was developed. A semiempirical relation between aquifer formation factor and hydraulic conductivity was also developed.
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    Notes: Long-term records of ground-water quality indicate that in an unsewered area of southeast Nassau County, New York, certain constituent concentrations increased substantially from 1910 to 1975. Most of the increases virtually parallel the rate of population growth and number of houses that discharge waste water through cesspools and septic tanks. Data sites used for this study were two abandoned infiltration galleries in Wantagh and Massapequa that withdraw water from the shallow aquifer. Ranges in constituent concentrations, in milligrams per liter, during 1910–75 were:
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    Notes: Subsidence of the land surface due to ground-water overdraft is caused by an increase in the intergranular pressure in unconsolidated aquifers and other underground materials. For unconfined aquifers, this increase is the result of a loss of buoyancy of solid particles in the zone dewatered by the falling water table. For confined aquifers, increases in intergranular pressure are caused by decreases in the upward hydraulic pressure against the bottom of the upper confining layer, due to a drop in piezometric surface. Compression of layers in which the intergranular pressure is increased can be calculated with elastic or logarithmic theory. Sample calculations yield rates of subsidence that agree with those observed, i.e., about 5 to 50 cm (2 to 20 inches) per 10-m (33-ft) drop in ground-water level. Ground-water depletion can also produce surface cracks, particularly above discontinuities in bedrock depth along the periphery or in other parts of subsiding basins. Calculations based on the rotating-slab theory show that the initial surface width of such cracks is about 1 cm (0.5 inch), which agrees with field observations.
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    Notes: Phosphate retention by soils is especially important for tile fields and rapid infiltration systems near lakes where eutrophication is a problem. The use and application of the phosphate adsorption isotherm test to estimate a soil's phosphate removal ability will be discussed. In New York State, the till soils had a greater phosphate retention ability than the outwash soils. Within the tills and within the outwashes, the more acid soils had a greater phosphate retention than the more basic or calcareous soils. The B horizon of many of the soils had a high phosphate capacity. However, this is often neglected in rapid infiltration systems because the waste water is discharged below the B horizon. The phosphate removal in column studies and field studies in rapid infiltration systems was found greater than predicted by the rapid isotherm test. Intermittent sand filters with two feet sand and underdrains were found to have a limited ability to remove phosphate. Methods to predict and design for phosphate retention by sands and soils are described.
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    Notes: The recent interest in the disposal of treated sewage effluent by deep-well injection into salt-water-filled aquifers has increased the need for proper disposal of salt water as more wells are drilled and tested each year.The effects on an unconfined aquifer of the improper disposal of salt water associated with the construction of three wells in southeastern Florida emphasize this need. In two of the wells provisions to prevent and detect salt-water contamination of the unconfined aquifer were practically nonexistent, and in one well extensive provisions were made. Of the three drilling sites the one with proper provision for detection presented no serious problem, as the ground water contaminated by the salt water was easily located and removed. The provisions consisted of drilling a brine-injection well to dispose of salt water discharged in drilling and testing operations, using a closed drilling circulation system to reduce spillage, installing shallow observation wells to map the extent and depth of any salt-water contamination of the shallow aquifer, and installing a dewatering system to remove contaminated ground water.
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    Notes: Generally the geology of the Breton area of Alberta consists of a 5-to 125-ft (1.5- to 38.1-m) veneer of glacial till overlying sandstone and sandy shale units of the Paskapoo Formation. These sandstone units are locally important aquifers. Glacial drift in the Hastings Lake area varies in thickness from 100 to 200 ft (30.5 to 61.0 m) and overlies the Horseshoe Canyon Formation, which consists of bentonitic shale, siltstone and coal units with minor sandstone units. Ground-water yields from drift and bedrock in this area are generally less than 30 gpm (113.6 1/m).Resistivity soundings were completed at 68 and 65 stations in the Breton and Hastings Lake areas, respectively. Profile maps from the Breton area are characterized by broad areas with apparent resistivity values greater than 100 ohm-ft (3048 ohm-cm). Qualitative evaluation of the resistivity soundings and existing borehole data indicated that the high resistivity values resulted from a thick resistive sandstone aquifer less than 25 ft (7.6 m) from ground surface. A reasonably well-defined resistivity pattern was evident on the profile maps of the Hastings Lake area with the highest resistivity values coming from stations located in the hummocky moraine south of the lake. Sounding curves and borehole data indicate that an increase in the sand content of the drift is responsible for these values. However, local variability in the drift lithology produces anomalies in the resistivity patterns. In addition to providing useful information on the geology of an area, surface resistivity methods provide a rapid and relatively inexpensive tool to aid in planning more detailed ground-water studies because of their ability to detect inhomogeneities in the subsurface environment.
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    Notes: Past ground-water quality monitoring programs have often involved sampling of low-capacity wells near point or line sources of recharge or pollution. However, large-capacity wells produce much of the ground water pumped for municipal, industrial, and agricultural uses. Short-term, seasonal, and long-term fluctuations in quality are common for water pumped from many large-capacity wells. In many cases, there is a considerable difference between in-situ “ground-water quality” and the quality of water sampled at the well discharge.Short-term pump tests for several municipal wells in the San Joaquin Valley, California have indicated that nitrate concentrations decreased exponentially with pumping time. Variability in pump operation creates substantial short-term changes in well-water quality. Short-term changes are most evident for infrequently pumped, shallow wells near point or line sources of recharge or pollution. Seasonal changes in quality have been documented for water from wells in areas of diffuse sources of pollution, such as agricultural return flow and septic tanks. These changes are primarily due to significant changes in depth to water and vertical hydraulic head gradient. Once the short-term and seasonal trends are established, the optimal sampling approach can be determined in order to establish long-term trends.
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    Notes: The effectiveness of basin ground-water recharge at the Leaky Acres Recharge Facility in Fresno, California for improving the regional ground-water quality was studied as 65,815,000 m3 of high-quality surface water was recharged from 1971 through 1975. Observation wells at the facility showed some variability in chemical parameters associated with each recharge period. The long-term decreases in salinity could be described by a power law decay curve fitted by regression analysis.Without a special network of observation wells outside the facility, scientific evaluation of the enclave of recharged water is not possible. A practical evaluation of water-quality changes is possible from producing water wells around the facility. However, the pumping well discharge-time variations, well depth, aquifer sequence, and prior use of surrounding land must be considered, since all of these factors affect the pumped-water quality and its seasonal variability. Recharge at Leaky Acres had noticeably decreased the ground-water salinity for a distance of up to 1.6 km in the direction of the regional ground-water movement.
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    Notes: One of the more subtle and dangerous areas of pollution is that occurring in ground water from normal irrigation practices. The pollution from salt buildup is presently one of the unsolved problems in managing stream-aquifer systems. This paper presents several strategies that offer a possibility of controlling this salt buildup. For example, instead of applying irrigation ground water near the site of the well, the ASTRAN Method transfers it downstream to be applied on land where the ground water is a lower quality thereby controlling the increase in salt concentration. Instead of preventing seepage loss in delivery canals, the percolating water is used to maintain ground-water quality. Finally, timed releases of return flow remove salts without exceeding surface-water quality constraints.
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    Notes: Soils and aquifers can function as effective and economical filter systems for advanced treatment of conventionally treated sewage and other wastewater. The wastewater is applied to the land with low-rate or high-rate infiltration systems. Physical, chemical, and biological processes in the soil improve the quality of the wastewater as it percolates through the vadose zone and into the aquifer to become renovated water. The quality of the renovated water, however, often is not as good as that of the native ground water. To utilize the land for treatment of wastewater, without trading a problem of surface-water pollution for one of ground-water contamination, the spread of renovated water in the aquifer must be restricted. This can be accomplished by locating the system so that the renovated water drains naturally into a stream or other surface water, or by artificially removing renovated water from the aquifer with wells or drains at some distance from the application area. Examples are given of various systems that utilize these principles, and general design criteria are presented. Proper design involves analysis of underground-flow systems for various system geometries. Methods for measuring hydraulic conductivity, particularly in the vadose zone, are briefly reviewed.
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    Notes: Over the last few years rises in the nitrate content of ground water from wells and springs in the principal aquifers of the United Kingdom have been observed. In a number of cases the concentrations have exceeded the WHO lower recommended limit. In order to determine the reason for the rise, to assess whether it will continue and the eventual nitrate levels, the Water Research Centre has undertaken an extensive programme of drilling and sampling on the Chalk and Bunter Sandstone, and by August 1976, twenty-two sites had been examined. This work has established that high nitrate concentrations (peaks up to 60 mg/l NO3-N have been observed) are present in the unsaturated aquifers at fertilized arable/ley sites. At unfertilized grassland sites nitrate concentrations are low (less than 4 mg/l NO3-N) and below fertilized established grassland values are in the intermediate range. At one farm site near Winchester, models to predict the rate of movement of nitrate through the unsaturated and saturated Chalk have been developed. These suggest that the nitrate levels at this site will remain at an essentially constant value of about 4 mg/l NO3-N until the late 1970's when they will rise progressively to about 4 mg/l NO3-N. The models have been checked against tritium data and the approach is now being extended to other sites.
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    Notes: The chemical quality of water in many shallow and surficial aquifers exhibits cyclic fluctuations. These fluctuations are caused by the intermittent flushing of contaminants into the ground during recharge events. The contaminants may be natural or reflect man's activities, particularly waste disposal schemes.Over the past 12 years an oil-field brine contaminated aquifer in central Ohio has been monitored. Data from three closely-spaced wells tapping selected parts of the aquifer indicate that brine is flushed into the ground during recharge events and that each contaminated mass maintains much of its integrity as it sinks to the bottom of the aquifer and then migrates laterally to the adjacent river. The most concentrated mass that covers the largest area infiltrates during the spring recharge period, but less concentrated and smaller masses may occur any time rainfall is sufficient to overcome the soil-moisture deficiency.Because of the cyclic nature of recontamination events, care and common sense must be exercised in the extrapolation of quality data, particularly in regard to estimation of contaminant flushing rates.
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    Notes: A computer program, based on the Hantush inflection method and designed for “desk top” computers is presented. The method assumes a leaky, isotropic, homogeneous aquifer of infinite areal extent. The language employed is BASIC, an interactive language used on the Wang Model 2200 programmable calculator. The program can be easily adapted to FORTRAN IV for use on larger machines.
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    Notes: A study of the quality of ground water from 250 open wells in the coastal aquifer of Kaniti-Paravada near Visakhapatnam, India brings out the fact that the occurrence of highly brackish waters in certain localized pockets is due to the hydrogeological processes going on in the area and not due to the influence of the sea. The phenomenon is verified by determining standard ratios of tracing sea-water contamination like Ca/Mg, Cl/HCo3’and TA/TH. Conductivity and sodium adsorption ratio are also determined for finding out the alkali hazard, to supplement the observations.
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    Notes: A hydrochemical study is outlined which demonstrates the mixing of two different ground-water types in the Lincolnshire Limestone aquifer. The two water types consist of a modern recharge water and an ancient possibly connate water. The hydrochemistry of the “interface zone” between the two waters is discussed in detail. In the younger water a relationship between sulphate reduction and bicarbonate is illustrated approaching the “interface zone” and is considered to be related indirectly to the mixing. Carbon isotope content is shown to be radically different in the various ground waters and supports the mixing hypothesis.
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    Notes: Exact solution to the problem of unsteady drawdown in a leaky artesian aquifer due to a constant discharge nonpenetrating well is presented. Finiteness of the well radius and aquifer anisotropy are considered in formulating the problem. Solution is derived on the assumption that the flux entering the pumped well is uniformly distributed over the plane circular bottom of the well. The aquifer is considered to be finite in thickness, but of infinite lateral extent. The flow of ground water is assumed to be governed by Jacob's model of linear leakage. Laplace transformation technique is employed in the theoretical development. The drawdown function is numerically integrated in terms of dimensionless parameters of the flow system and the results are depicted in graphs.
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    Notes: The technical feasibility of storing energy in an aquifer is being investigated by Auburn University in a field experiment. Waste hot water from Alabama Power Company's Barry Steam Plant will be pumped into an artesian aquifer, stored, and recovered. The field data will be used by the U.S. Geological Survey to verify numerical models for the analysis of the transport of heat in an artesian aquifer system.
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    Notes: Although more than 60 million individuals rely upon the absence of microbial pathogens in their marginally-treated or untreated ground-water supplies, an analysis of reported waterborne disease outbreaks for the period 1946-1970 shows that contaminated ground-water supplies were responsible for over 50 percent of the outbreaks. Completed ground-water studies indicate: (1) coliforms and fecal coliforms are present in a significant percentage of improperly located or inadequately protected private supplies, and (2) the apparent absence of coliforms due to the insensitivity of currently available bacteriological methods does not preclude pathogen occurrences. Excessive bacterial populations, normally not encountered in finished water, can suppress coliform detection. For this reason, it is essential that improved bacterial detection methods be developed and other criteria for untreated ground water be explored by comprehensive field investigations and laboratory analysis of ground-water supplies for a variety of bacterial parameters.
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    Notes: The ground waters of Runnels County, Texas, are highly contaminated with nitrate. The average nitrate concentration of 230 water samples was 250 mg/I NO3.The natural variations of the stable nitrogen isotopes N14 and N15 identified natural soil nitrate as the predominant source. Nitrate from animal wastes was of minor importance. The δN15 range of natural soil nitrate was +2 to +8% whereas the δN15 range of animal waste nitrate was +10 to +20%- (Atmospheric nitrogen was used as a standard for mass spectrometric analysis. Experimental error for sample preparation and isotopic analysis was ±1 %.) More than 66 percent of the ground-water nitrates analyzed were in the δN15 range of natural soil nitrates.Dryland farming since 1900 has caused the oxidation of the organic nitrogen in the soil to nitrate. Minimal fertilizer has been used because of the lack of suitable water for irrigation. During the period 1900-1950, nitrate was leached below the root zone but not to the water table. Extensive terracing after the drought in the early 1950's has raised the water table approximately 6 meters and has leached the nitrate into the ground water. Tritium dates indicate that the ground water is less than 20 years old.
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    Ground water 13 (1975), S. 0 
    ISSN: 1745-6584
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering , Geosciences
    Notes: Salt-water migration into relatively shallow rocks in the western half of West Virginia is already rather far advanced. Because of the wide distribution of salty ground water and connate brine at various depths, it is difficult to determine how much of the contamination is natural and how much is the result of subsurface industrial activities. Although some local salt-water problems are the result of oil and gas operations, much of the regional near-surface salt water is a natural condition unrelated to deep drilling or other industrial activities.Ground water is usually more abundant from consolidated aquifers beneath the valleys than from beneath the ridges. However, the presence of shallow salt water beneath the valleys imposes limitations on the availability of fresh water from a single well. Because most well fields must be located along the populated valleys, the problem of interception of salt water is the most important factor limiting development of consolidated bedrock aquifers. By utilizing the history of development and operation of well fields, an estimate of the availability of fresh water can be made, and test drilling and new well field construction guided accordingly.During 1971 to 1974, more than a dozen small communities in Logan and Boone Counties started development of public-water supplies from wells. Existing water-supply problems in these areas are being solved by using the cumulative experience of other communities in the area. Ground water is currently being developed in valley areas of Logan County such as Man to Lorado, Essie to Big Creek, and Huff Creek to Mallory. Adequate well fields have recently been successfully constructed just above shallow salt water in bedrock aquifers at Hattie in Calhoun County, near Madison in Boone County, near Southside in Mason County, and at Prichard in Wayne County. In all of these areas of successful construction, the essential information for initial test drilling was obtained by detailed hydrogeologic work at the prospective sites. Most important was the determination of the maximum depth of fresh water, well spacing and pumping rates.
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    Notes: Book reviewed in this Article: Demystifying Social Statistics. J. Irvine, I. Miles J. Evans (eds.). Prciples of Statistical Techniques. By P. G. Moore.
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    Notes: What are the problems we can expect to meet when project work forms a significant part of a C.S.E. examination course in statistics? Mrs Dolan describes her experiences.
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    Notes: This article is one of a series. Here we take a problem that has arisen in an industry and show how a simple application of probability theory helped in its solution.
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    Notes: Two of the newer bodies producing syllabuses for the 16 to 19 year age range are the Technician Education Council (TEC) and the Business Education Council (BEC). Trevor Easingwood, the chairman of the joint BEC/TEC committee for mathematics and statistics, describes the background to the statistics in the TEC courses.
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    Notes: Bringing a pond into the classroom can enrich the teaching of statistics as well as biology and bring them together.
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    Notes: ‘But how is statistics used in practice?’ ask our pupils. Peter Reynolds outlines two applications that landed on his desk.
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    Notes: Combining samples from different distributions is a hazardous process. Traditionally form orders in schools have been produced by combining the marks from different subjects. Bryan Wilson describes a teaching approach to sensitize student teachers to the dangers of doing this.
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    Notes: With large numbers of pupils staying on into the sixth form for one year there is a need for a suitable statistics course. Jim Hillyer describes one such course for which he is the chief examiner.
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    Notes: Books Reviewed in this Article: Statistics: A guide to the unknown. Edited by J. M. TANUR et al. Holden Day. Mathematical Carnival. By MARTIN GARDNER
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    Notes: Book reviewed in this Article: A Basic Course in Statistics. By G. M. Clarke and D. Cooke. How to use (and misuse) Statistics. By Gregory A. Kimble.
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    ISSN: 1745-6584
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    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering , Geosciences
    Notes: Small programmable calculators have recently become available that will allow many routine pumping or injection well calculations to be made rapidly, accurately and inexpensively. Programs and example calculations are given for the exponential integral and multiple well-multiple rate pumping or injection well equations using water well and oilfield units. The programs are for the TI 59 card programmable calculator.
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    Ground water 17 (1979), S. 0 
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    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering , Geosciences
    Notes: Because of the relatively low stiffness properties of thermoplastic materials, casings made from these materials may be more susceptible to collapse. For many applications, when a surrounding material tends to support the casing, the casing resistance to collapse should be significantly increased. The Morley equations of equilibrium for two radial collapse pressure loading conditions were modified to include the support of the surrounding medium and were solved using the Galerkin method. Parametric studies were conducted for typical water well casings and restraint values. Simple collapse prediction formulas are proposed for predicting collapse for the two loading conditions considered. Collapse pressures predicted by the proposed formulas for uniform collapse pressure are approximately 25% lower than those values predicted by the current ASTM formula. Collapse pressures for linearly varying pressure were found to be 12% higher than the corresponding values for uniform pressure. When the radial stiffness of the surrounding medium is included in the analysis, the collapse pressure resistance of the casing was found to be significantly increased over the collapse resistance of an unsupported casing.
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