ALBERT

Notes: The microbial load and nutritional composition of the Bunaea alcinoe larvae were investigated. The bacterial population of the skin and intestinal content were 8.16 × 106and 5.70 × 105 cfu/g while the fungal populations were 2.07 × 106and 1.32 × 106 cfu/g, respectively. Twenty bacterial isolates belonging to the genera Staphylococcus, Bacillus, Micrococcus and Acinetobacter were isolated. Staphylococcus aureus occurred on both the skin and intestinal content. The nutritional composition of the larvae revealed high protein (55%) followed by fat (25%). Total available carbohydrate, moisture and ash were 4, 8 and 8%, respectively. The public health implication of the presence of S. aureus is highlighted. B. alcinoe larva is a rich source of protein and can be recommended in the diet of communities where protein is scarce or expensive.

Notes: Preference testing is commonly used in consumer sensory evaluation. Traditionally, it is done without replication, effectively leading to a single 0/1 (binary) measurement on each panelist. However, to understand the nature of the preference, replicated preference tests are a better approach, resulting in binomial counts of preferences on each panelist. Variability among panelists then leads to overdispersion of the counts when the binomial model is used and to an inflated Type I error rate for statistical tests of preference. Overdispersion can be adjusted by Pearson correction or by other models such as correlated binomial or beta-binomial. Several methods are suggested or reviewed in this study for analyzing replicated preference tests and their Type I error rates and power are compared. Simulation studies show that all methods have reasonable Type I error rates and similar power. Among them, the binomial model with Pearson adjustment is probably the safest way to analyze replicated preference tests, while a normal model in which the binomial distribution is not assumed is the easiest.

Notes: Activity patterns of the suprahyoid muscles were examined using a new analytical technique. The suprahyoid activities were recorded during swallowing of tasteless foods and foods with taste qualities (sweet, salty, sour, bitter and umami). The technique involved: (1) division of cumulative integrated suprahyoid activities from each swallow into 10 equal sections and (2) assignment of individually sectioned activities to a standardized timescale as TP (from T10To T100; relative time for P% of the cumulative electromyogram) to enable comparison of data from different trials. Three significant differences were found in T p between the following foods: tasteless and sour, tasteless and bitter, and sour and umami. However, the differences were not repeatedly confirmed. These results suggest that gustatory signals from food tastes affect differentially the activity patterns of the suprahyoid muscles during pharyngeal swallowing, although the effect is not permanent. This method may be used to measure taste impressions in infants and in certain disabled subjects.

Notes: The purpose of this article is to discuss the issues associated with selecting assessors for sensory panels. It develops the argument that although there are many variations in the detail of how assessors are selected, all panels can be considered as either (1) selecting respondents to measure ingredient concentrations via perceptions or (2) selecting respondents to represent the response that would be obtained from a wider consumer population. The validity of the data collected, i.e., the extent to which the data collected measures what was originally intended, depends on the detail of how assessors were selected as well as a number of other factors.

Notes: Subjects were simultaneously given subthreshold levels of taste and odor stimuli, delivered orally, for both a commonly paired and an uncommonly paired taste–odor combination. Results indicate cross-modal summation of subthreshold concentrations of both taste–odor pairs when the olfactory stimulus is delivered orally. Results of control studies suggest that the summation was indeed across modalities, and not due to the taste of the odor compound or the smell of the taste compounds. Furthermore, results indicate that regardless of taste–odor pair commonness, taste and smell can combine in a completely additive fashion (i.e., at threshold detectability when both stimuli are presented simultaneously at 50% threshold level) if the taste–odor pair is presented orally. In several instances, but not all, measured probabilities exceeded those predicted by probability summation, indicating that hyperadditive mixing often occurs, but there do seem to be individual differences. Cross-modal summation, regardless of taste–odor pair commonness, has broader implications for the development of foods, beverages and pharmaceuticals, especially in masking undesirable tastes and smells.

Notes: The objective of this study was to establish the aromatic descriptors that identify the aroma of young Mencía wines from different geographic areas of Ribeira Sacra Appellation of Origin Controlled in Galicia (NW Spain). Initially, 36 attributes were identified. A multivariate analysis was carried out to evaluate this possible differentiation between the Mencía wines according to production area. Principal component analysis of sensory data permitted the differentiation among geographic areas. The wines differed significantly for seven sensory attributes. The wines from Chantada and Ribeira do Miño were characterized by higher intensities of metallic and bread odors, while Amandi and Quiroga-Bibei by balsamic, apple and phenolic characters. The wines from Ribeira do Sil exhibited a toasting character and the lactic character was present in all wines except those from Ribeira do Sil.

Notes: Psychophysical thinking informs both concept development and product design. With products, the researcher systematically varies ingredients/processes and measures consumer reactions such as acceptance and sensory impressions. The product data generate a model showing how the formulations drive ratings. With concepts (and package designs), the researcher systematically varies the presence/absence of elements/pictures and measures consumer reactions such as acceptance or appropriateness. The concept data generate a model showing how the elements drive reactions. Concept and product research look for relations among variables, at once to understand and also to engineer consumer-acceptable products and messaging.

Notes: The effect of varietal differences and polishing of rice on quality parameters of “idli,” an Indian fermented product, were studied. In addition, the functional properties of decorticated (whole and split) black gram (Phaseolus mungo Roxb.), were also determined. Two varieties of raw rice, “Jaya” and “Minilong,” and one variety of parboiled rice “Ponni” with two degrees of polishing (high and low) were selected. Idlis were prepared following standard procedures. Variations were observed in water and fat absorption capacities of two black gram samples. Emulsification capacity ranged from 102 to 110 mL/100 g. Foam capacities at different pH range were similar, but foam stability differed as a function of time. The pH of the fermented batter was between 4.1 and 4.8. Rice with a lesser degree of polishing fermented better with higher batter volume and microbial count, lesser shear value and gave softer idlis. However, sensory analysis revealed that idlis prepared with low-polish rice scored significantly lower for appearance and color quality compared with products prepared with high-polish rice. Significant differences were observed in the quality of flavor of all products. It can be concluded that the quality characteristics of Idli were influenced by the variety of rice and the degree of polishing, but the two types of black gram used, whole and split, had no effect.

Notes: Rice is the staple food of many countries and its sensory quality is of great concern to the consumers. Its preservation through thermal processing in retort pouches for ready-to-eat purposes was carried out by different time–temperature schedules with and without oil to achieve a minimum Foof 3 min. The sensory analysis of the cooked rice carried out using quantitative descriptive analysis showed that a process schedule of 118C, 8 min was optimum to have the optimal sensory characteristics. The same rice samples were subjected to instrumental texture measurements by texture analyzer using a crosshead speed of 0.5 mm/s with 90% compression for hardness and stickiness parameters. The instrumental hardness showed high correlation with sensory hardness, chewiness and overall quality (r = 0.72; r = 0.73; r = 0.79) and a negative correlation with sensory stickiness (r = −0.75). Applying principal component analysis, thermally processed rice samples were further classified based on the sensory and instrumental texture attributes.

Notes: This article describes the approach of the spectrum descriptive analysis (SDA) method to evaluate sensory properties of skin care products. The terminology for various lotions and creams was developed using SDA. A total of 26 attributes on five phases was developed with definitions and scales. Through discriminative, descriptive and scaling testing, 10 panelists were selected, and panel training was conducted until the panel grand standard deviation of the evaluated data of calibration samples showed less than 1.0. After the extensive training on sensory perceptions and scaling, the panelists evaluated the 26 attributes on 12 aqua-cream products. In the principal component analysis result of aqua-cream data, the first principal component (PC) was mainly related to oiliness, viscosity, adhesiveness and thickness on one side of the scale and transparency, wetness, coolness and spreadability on the other, with 40% of variance. The stickiness and gloss contributed greatly to the second PC with 30% of variance. The total amount of variance that was explained at the two PCs was 78%. In the biplot loadings of products and attributes, creams of K and L were identified by their higher degrees of wetness, spreadability and moisturization. They had lower degrees of stickiness, gloss and oiliness.

Notes: Survival of Listeria monocytogenes in chorizos (Mexican-style sausages) was modeled in relation to initial water activity (aw0) and storage conditions using the Weibull cumulative distribution function. Twenty survival curves were generated from chorizos formulated at aw0 = 0.85–0.97 then stored under four temperature (T) and air inflow velocity (F) conditions. The Weibull model parameters (α and β) were determined for every curve. Predicted survival curves agreed with experimental curves with R2 = 0.945–0.992. Regression models (R2 = 0.981–0.984) were developed to relate α and β to operating conditions. The times to one- and two-log reduction in count (t1D and t2D) were derived from the Weibull model in terms of α and β. A parametric study revealed that L. monocytogenes survival was most sensitive to aw0 between 0.90 and 0.95. The inactivation of L. monocytogenes could be maximized with higher T and lower aw0; however, F did not significantly influence survival.

Notes: Food safety experts have a key role in constructing food risk messages and thus their perceptions will influence how food risk issues are communicated to the public. This research examined the perceptions of food safety experts regarding public understanding of food risk issues and food risk messages on the island of Ireland. It also looked into expert views of the barriers to effective food risk communication and how to improve food risk messages. One hundred and forty-three experts, working in areas related to food safety, completed an online questionnaire. Questionnaire and statement design was guided by the results of four in-depth interviews with food safety experts. The findings indicate that most experts surveyed have little confidence in the public's understanding of food risk issues, their assessment of food risks, their ability to deal with scientific information and their food safety practices. Experts are of the view that the public under-assesses the risk associated with some microbiological hazards and over-assesses the risk associated with other hazards such as genetically modified organisms (GMOs) and bovine spongiform encephalopathy. The opinion of experts with regard to GMOs is not supported by previous consumer research. Experts noted that the level of education and age were important determinants for the level of understanding of food risk issues and messages. Experts were of the view that early intervention via school curricula was the best method to improve public understanding of food risk messages in the long term. Furthermore, experts are of the view that the media have the ability to improve awareness and knowledge about food risk issues but believe that the media tend to communicate information that is misleading. The majority of experts also believe that they should communicate uncertainty but are not confident that the public is able to cope with this uncertainty. Many of the experts also indicated a desire for training on how to interact with the media. The results may be used by those experts who are involved in the construction of food risk messages to improve the design and communication of food risk messages.

Notes: The aim of this research was to investigate the potential relationship, if any, between the acquisition/possession of antibiotic resistance genes in strains of Salmonella and its resistance to heat stress. Chicken pieces were inoculated with antibiotic sensitive (AS) strains of S. Enteritidis and S. Typhimurium, its laboratory-acquired antibiotic-resistant (AR) mutant strains (nalidixic acid and streptomycin), or a multiresistant strain of S. Typhimurium DT104. Half of these samples were heat-shocked (48C for 30 min) and all were heat-challenged at 55C for up to 30 min. Samples were then plated on xylose lysine desoxycholate (XLD) and tryptone soya agar (TSA) overpoured with XLD. Heat-shocked cultures of S. Typhimurium DT104 had significantly higher D-values (the time required for a 1 log reduction in the number of bacteria) than their non-heat-shocked counterparts (P 〈 0.05). No significant differences were observed between AR and their AS. However, the D-values for S. Typhimurium DT104 were significantly higher than the D-values for S. Typhimurium (AS) and S. Enteritidis (AS) (P 〈 0.05). This study concluded that laboratory-acquired antibiotic-resistant mutation did not affect heat resistance of the Salmonella strains studied and suggested a potential link between multiantibiotic resistance and heat resistance in S. Typhimurium DT104.

Notes: Pediococcus pentosaceous DT10, isolated from ready-to-eat fish products, produced a bacteriocin active against Gram-positive bacteria, many of which are associated with food spoilage and food-related health hazards. The bacteriocin, named pediocin DT10, was partially purified and was observed to kill sensitive Leuconostoc mesenteroides cells by acting on their cytoplasmic membrane. Exposure of cell suspensions of L. mesenteroides to pediocin DT10 produced cell-viability loss, as shown by the reduction in colony-forming units after treatment. The activity of pediocin DT10 against L. mesenteroides cells was bactericidal in nature, and also induced an important efflux of intracellular material. The transmission electron microscopy of ultrathin sections of L. mesenteroides cells confirmed the way pediocin DT10 causes lysis of the sensitive L. mesenteroides cells.

Notes: All Gram-negative bacteria tested were normally resistant to the bactericidal action of pediocin P of Pediococcus pentosaceous Pep1, which had been isolated from vacuum-packaged sausages. However, when they were subjected to sublethal stress (exposure to physical and chemical stresses such as freezing, heating and acid treatment) and were treated with pediocin P, gram-negative bacterial cells that were normally resistant to pediocin P developed sensitivity to it and pediocin P reduced the viability of bacterial cells surviving sublethal stresses, although the extent of reduction varied with strain and type of treatment. When the combined effect of ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA), sublethal heat and pediocin P was studied by adding EDTA and pediocin P to cell suspensions right before heating them, there was a considerable reduction in the number of viable cells, even at the lowest concentration of pediocin P tested. The results of our preliminary studies showed that sublethal injury can make the gram-negative bacterial cells sensitive to pediocin P.

Notes: The ability of two strains of Salmonella to form biofilms on whole cantaloupe melons was investigated. Ten microliters of bacterial suspensions was spot-inoculated onto cantaloupe melon rinds in pre-marked areas, and the cantaloupe melons were held at either 10 or 20C. Biofilm formation was monitored using scanning electron microscopy on excised portions of the cantaloupe melon rind at 2, 24, 48, 72 and 144 h postinoculation. Micrographs indicated that biofilm formation occurred rapidly following introduction of cells (2 h at 20C) onto the cantaloupe melon rind. A fibrillar material was visible after just 2 h at 20C, and cells were embedded in extracellular polymeric material after 24 h at either temperature. These results indicate that a human pathogen is capable of forming a biofilm on plant tissue and that biofilm formation may be responsible for the increased recalcitrance of bacteria to aqueous sanitizers.

Notes: The differences in attachment and penetration ability of Campylobacter jejuni were determined by analyzing C. jejuni isolates obtained from chicken carcasses and from humans exhibiting symptoms of campylobacteriosis. INT 407 cells, a human cell line originating from the jejunal/ileal region, were used as the in vitro model, and attachment and penetration abilities were evaluated for each isolate. There were no significant differences between the attachment and penetration abilities of chicken isolates and human isolates (HUMN). In addition, a wide range of attachment and penetration abilities was found for the isolates, with many of the HUMN possessing low attachment and penetration abilities. These data indicate that C. jejuni attachment and penetration into the human ileal and jejunal regions may not be primary virulence factors and may only be important in causing more acute symptoms.

Notes: Storage experiments were conducted to follow the behavior of Listeria monocytogenes and Escherichia coli O157:H7, deliberately inoculated on fresh-cut cactus-pear fruits before packaging under modified and control atmosphere and stored at four different temperatures (4, 8, 12 and 20C). L. monocytogenes was able to proliferate during storage at different temperature both in control and modified atmosphere. By comparing the sanitary-risk values with those of shelf life, it is possible to conclude that the storage of cactus-pear samples at temperatures greater than 4C, both in control and in modified atmospheres, could lead to a significant health-time risk, and that this is strictly affected by temperature. E. coli O157:H7 was able to proliferate only in the sample stored at 4 and 8C in both package atmospheres. On the contrary, this species was completely suppressed at the higher temperatures. In our study, E. coli O157:H7 appeared to be much less suited for survival on the surface of the fruit than L. monocytogenes.

Notes: Antimicrobial resistance was determined for 73 isolates of Salmonella enteritidis isolated from foods involved in human foodborne outbreaks that occurred in the South of Brazil, from 1999 to 2000. The isolates were individually tested against 10 antimicrobial agents using a disc diffusion method. Most isolates were susceptible to all drugs tested. No S. enteritidis isolates were resistant to sulfamethoxazole/trimethoprim or chloramphenicol. The predominant resistance observed was to streptomycin (S) (37%), gentamicin (GEN) (13.7%) and nalidixic acid (NAL) (13.7%), while intermediate resistance was observed most often for tetracycline (53.4%), neomycin (NEO) (30.1%) and GEN (15.1%). Resistance was verified in 40 isolates (54%), which were grouped in 15 different patterns. Multiple resistance was presented in 17 (23%) of the isolates, and one isolate exhibited resistance to four drugs (NEO, kanamycin, S and NAL), demonstrating the involvement of multiresistant S. enteritidis strains with foodborne outbreaks.

Notes: Fresh, different meat types and offal were examined for the occurrence of Aeromonas species by the direct-plating and enrichment methods. The enrichment method (coefficient of variation = 15.1%) enhanced the recovery of Aeromonas species. The major Aeromonas species identified were A. sobria (67.3%) and A. hydrophila (21.2%). Other species occurred in minor proportions and were A. caviae, A. proteolytica and A. salmonicida. Out of the 52 isolates, 50 were motile species except two which were not motile and identified as the species A. proteolytica. Sixteen motile species occurred in cow, 18 in goat and 16 in lamb. The motile species and the two nonmotile species were hemolytic. They were all sensitive to chloramphenicol (30 mg) and resistant to ampicillin (10 mg). The nonmotile A. proteolytica were all resistant to tetracycline. Aeromonas caviae, A. salmonicida, A. hydrophila and A. sobria were killed after exposure to 50C (decimal reduction time, D10 = 30 s). Aeromonads are unlikely to pose a public health problem in Nigeria where meat undergoes prolonged cooking. Meat is a possible factor in the epidemiology of Aeromonas-associated gastroenteritis in man.

Notes: Campylobacter jejuni is a leading cause of human gastroenteritis. Using a tissue culture system, researchers have found that spiral forms of C. jejuni are more pathogenic than coccoid forms of the same strain. The objective of this research was to investigate genomic changes associated with the dimorphism in C. jejuni using pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) and sequencing of flaA gene of C. jejuni isolated from chicken carcasses and human stool samples. C. jejuni isolates were cultured for 18 h (spiral form) and 72 h (coccoid form). PFGE profiles of both forms of C. jejuni showed 100% genetic similarity. For sequence analysis of the flaA gene of C. jejuni, its short-variable region (SVR) was analyzed. For the two forms of the same isolate, the nucleic-acid sequences of the SVR of flaA showed 95–100% similarity. It is concluded that morphological dimorphism of C. jejuni was not associated with genetic changes as measured by the mentioned tests.

Notes: The Aerobic Plate Counts (APCs) of some Philippine ready-to-eat (RTE) foods from take-away premises were established for the first time within the context of using the information for the development of Philippine microbial guidelines for RTE foods. The calculated APCs for most of the RTE foods analyzed in the study were ≤ 10 5 cfu/unit of food sample. Among the reasons cited to explain higher APC values were: use of raw ingredients for the final product, temperature abuse during vending, inadequate cooking and use of leftovers. It was recommended that the generally acceptable microbial guideline value for APC of RTE foods set at 〈 105 cfu/unit be adapted locally until more precise microbial criteria for this food type could be developed through an appropriate scientific process.

Notes: Isolates from fermented foods were screened for antimicrobial activity against gram-negative bacteria. The most active isolate was identified as a Lactobacillus curvatus by biochemical analysis and ribotyping, and the isolate was designated as OSY-HJC6. Lactobacillus curvatus OSY-HJC6 was further tested for intracellular and extracellular production of antimicrobial agents. A reduction of 〉 8 log10 cfu/mL was observed when cell suspensions of Salmonella enterica serovar Enteritidis and Escherichia coli O157:H7 were treated with equal volumes of Lb. curvatus culture supernatant. Gram-positive bacteria were not sensitive to the culture supernatant, but antimicrobial activity was detected when the cell extract was tested against several gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria. Culture supernatant and cell extract retained the antimicrobial activity after heating at 60–100C for 10 min but not after protease treatment. The cell extract of Lb. curvatus retarded the growth of E. coli p220 in broth medium and food extracts (i.e., bacteriostatic action) but showed bactericidal activity against the bacterium in phosphate buffer.

Notes: A study was undertaken to assess the prevalence of Clostridium perfringens in meat and to characterize the isolates obtained in the study for virulence factors. A total of 211 meat samples of different animals (70 each of buffalo and goat and 71 of poultry) were screened and the highest occurrence of C. perfringens was observed in goat (91.4%) followed by poultry (70.4%) and buffalo (65.7%). Among the 116 isolates (buffalo-32, goat-37 and poultry-45) of C. perfringens screened for the presence of enterotoxin gene by PCR, 9.3, 32.4 and 15.5% isolates of buffalo, goat and poultry, respectively, were found to possess enterotoxin gene. Screening of 15 enterotoxin gene possessing isolates for verocytotoxicity revealed that 12 isolates exhibited cytopathic effect while 3 isolates did not show any cytopathic effect in spite of the presence of enterotoxin gene. A total of 115 C. perfringens isolates were screened for other virulence markers, i.e., lecithinase and hemolysin. The results revealed that the majority of the isolates expressed these activities. Antibiogram studies of C. perfringens isolates using 16 antibiotics displayed multidrug resistance. The isolates showed resistance to streptomycin, ceftazidime, colistin sulfate, cephalothin, ampicillin and gentamicin. Whereas 100% sensitivity to ciprofloxacin, ofloxacin and nitrofurantoin was seen, moderate sensitivity was observed with tetracycline and sulfatriad.

Notes: The pork tonsils are an important carrier of Salmonella, which could be involved in the contamination of pork products during the slaughter process. This paper reports a 23S rRNA fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH) method used as a rapid screening tool for Salmonella detection in tonsils of slaughtered pigs and its comparison with the conventional culture method. As a rapid screening method, the FISH technique would reduce the high volume of negative samples that are routinely analyzed, indicating presumptive positive samples in a real and practical time. The use of a Sal3 probe allowed the rapid (7 h) Salmonella detection in 16 (34%) of 47 naturally contaminated tonsils, without pre-enrichment. Salmonella was isolated by the culture method in six samples that were also FISH-positive samples, and FISH failed to identify only one of the culture-positive samples. The results indicate the potential of this technique as a rapid screening method for detecting Salmonella in tonsils from pork slaughtered for consumption.

Notes: The antioxidant and antibacterial potentials of essential oils and acetone extracts of black pepper, cumin, black cumin and mace were carried out by different techniques. The antioxidative capacity of the essential oils and acetone extracts were evaluated against mustard oil by measuring peroxide and thibarbituric acid values at fixed intervals. In addition, their antioxidant potential was evaluated by 2, 2′-diphenyl-1-picrylhydracyl radical and conjugated diene assays. Their reducing power was determined with standards, which proved the strong antioxidant capacity of essential oils and extracts. The antioxidant activity of essential oils and extracts exerted by all the antioxidant assays can be compared with synthetic antioxidants such as butylated hydroxyanisole and butylated hydroxytoluene. The antibacterial activity was studied by disk diffusion and poison food methods. Black cumin essential oil showed complete zone of inhibition (P 〈 0.05) against tested bacterial strains of Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus cereus and Bacillus subtilis at 2 and 6 µL level by disk diffusion method. Black cumin and black pepper extracts showed complete reduction of colonies against tested bacterial strains of S. aureus, B. cereus and B. subtilisat 5 and 10 µL level by poison food method. Poison food method exhibited good results for the tested essential oils and extracts. Essential oils of black pepper, cumin, black cumin and mace may be used to stabilize mustard oil after screening.

Notes: The objective of this investigation was to model the influence of the initial microbial concentration on the Escherichia coli resistance to chlorine. A suspension test was used to evaluate the antibacterial efficacy of chlorine. Chlorine doses ranged from 0.6 to 0.9 mL /L, from 0.3 to 0.7 m L /L, from 0.15 to 0.3 mL/L and from 0.1 to 0.2 mL /L when the initial microbial concentration was 1.2 × 108, 6 × 107, 6 × 106and 6 × 105 CFU/mL, respectively. In order to describe the survival curves of E. coli, a mathematical model based on a biphasic inactivation was used. Initial microbial concentration had a significant influence on the kinetics of inactivation and on the resistance of E. coli to chlorine. In order to obtain a good repeatability and reproducibility of the bacterial suspension test, the initial concentration of bacterial suspensions should be evaluated and standardized.

Notes: The growth and survival of Bacillus cereus, a known pathogen commonly found in cereals, during lactic acid fermentation of boza, a traditional Turkish cereal beverage, was studied. In the boza base inoculated with both the starter culture and B. cereus, the acidity developed to pH 2.6 and 0.8% titratable acidity after 72 h; the growth of B. cereus was reduced from 3.9 log cfu/mL to 1 log cfu/mL within 72 h. The control boza base to which starter was not added had a pH of 3, titratable acidity of 0.8%. The B. cereus in this boza base to which no starter culture was added dropped to 1 log cfu/mL after 72 h. No strains of lactic acid bacteria were found to produce bacteriocins antagonistic to B. cereus. Low pH and acidity were found to be the major factors inhibiting growth of B. cereus in boza.

Notes: Many divalent salts (e.g., calcium, iron, zinc), have important nutritional value and are used to fortify food or as dietary supplements. Sensory characterization of some divalent salts in aqueous solutions by untrained judges has been reported in the psychophysical literature, but formal sensory evaluation by trained panels is lacking. To provide this information, a trained descriptive panel evaluated the sensory characteristics of 10 divalent salts including ferrous sulfate, chloride and gluconate; calcium chloride, lactate and glycerophosphate; zinc sulfate and chloride; and magnesium sulfate and chloride. Among the compounds tested, iron compounds were highest in metallic taste; zinc compounds had higher astringency and a glutamate-like sensation; and bitterness was pronounced for magnesium and calcium salts. Bitterness was affected by the anion in ferrous and calcium salts. Results from the trained panelists were largely consistent with the psychophysical literature using untrained judges, but provided a more comprehensive set of oral sensory attributes.

Notes: Jaw movements during the act of biting were measured for seven subjects trained in descriptive analysis using an electrognathograph. The effectiveness of instrumental imitative tests performed at predefined and individual crosshead speeds (matching velocities measured in vivo) to predict the perception of hardness in 14 gelatin gels was assessed. For all seven subjects, the perception of hardness was adequately described by imitative instrumental tests performed with dental replicas of individual subjects (0.88 〈 R 〈 0.97). For some of the subjects, tests performed at crosshead speeds matching biting speeds improved the instrumental prediction of hardness, suggesting that biting velocity is an important aspect of the perception of hardness in food.

Notes: Response surface methodology was used to profile and characterize formulations of chocolate peanut spread. A constrained mixture design for 36 different formulations with varying peanut (P), chocolate (C) and sugar (S) was used. A processing variable, roast (R), was included where peanuts were roasted to light, medium and dark levels. A descriptive panel (n = 10) identified and rated 24 attributes, using 150-mm unstructured line scales. Regression analysis was performed and models were reduced. Models having R2 〉 0.70 were selected for prediction. Contour maps were constructed to: (1) visualize the effects of mixture components and roasting level and (2) characterize optimum formulations at light, medium and dark, which were determined as (30–49% P, 23–40% C and 21–31% S); (29–65% P, 0.9–41% C and 17–36% S) and (27–56% P, 19–45% C and 18–35% S), respectively, adding up to 100% of the mixture. Analyses of optimum and nonoptimum formulations and significant differences were not found between predicted and observed values for most attributes.

Notes: The impact of serving temperature on trained panel perception of Cheddar cheese flavor attributes was determined. Seven cheeses were selected to represent a range of age and flavor profiles. A descriptive sensory panel received 75 h training on 15 terms for cheese flavor attributes and basic tastes from a previously identified sensory lexicon for Cheddar cheese. Three serving temperatures were selected (5, 12, 21C). Cheeses were subsequently evaluated in quadruplicate by the panel at each serving temperature. Cheeses were differentiated on their flavor and taste attributes (P 〈 0.0001). Perception of sour taste intensity increased with serving temperature (P 〈 0.05). Other flavors and basic tastes did not exhibit a temperature effect or temperature by cheese interaction (P 〉 0.05). Panelists noted that cheese was more difficult to evaluate at 21C compared with 12 or 5C. Cheddar cheese serving temperature should not pose an issue for comparing descriptive sensory results from multiple locations.

Notes: Mixture design and pilot-plant scale processing protocol were developed to obtain the best chocolate-flavored peanut–soy beverage formulation. Twenty-eight formulations were evaluated for nutritional (lysine content), physical (viscosity [η], visual stability index [VSI]) and nine sensory (consumer liking) attributes. Lysine contents (mg/g protein) (44.1–57.1) were close to the reference (51.0) and in the desirable range observed for other peanut-based beverages. Higher viscosity indicated lower consumer liking, but lower viscosity resulted in lower VSI. Formulation ♯8 having 43.9% peanut, 36.3% soy protein isolate (SPI) and 19.8% chocolate syrup had the highest consumer liking and the best balance of physical properties (η = 41.5 mPa·s; VSI = 0.99). As compared to commercial chocolate milk (6 = slightly like to 7 = moderately like), it was rated higher for appearance (7.0), color (6.8) and sweetness (6.4). Two SPI formulations (♯6 and ♯7) and a soy flour formulation (♯14) were rated highest for aroma (6.2), color (7.0) and flavor (6.0), respectively.

Notes: This study explored consumer liking and perception of pork patties with an added functional health ingredient: shiitake (Lentinus edodes P.) mushroom powder. In addition, patties with and without sodium tripolyphosphate were tested. Both native Korean and U.S. consumers evaluated the products. Pork patties made with both phosphate and mushroom powder were found to be acceptable by Korean consumers, but increases in mushroom powder in patties with phosphate decreased acceptability for U.S. consumers. However, addition of mushroom powder to patties without phosphate increased acceptability for U.S. consumers, perhaps because it tended to increase texture acceptance and juiciness. Thus, addition of mushroom powder as a functional ingredient in pork patties, while possible, would require different formula modifications to appeal to consumers of differing nationalities.

Notes: Three groups, each comprising 200 consumers, performed paired preference tests between two flavors of potato chips. For one group, a “No Preference” option was allowed, while for the second group, it was not. For a third group, a “No Preference” option was allowed while the preference responses were differentiated as “Strong Preference” and “Weak Preference.” For all three groups, d′ values representing overall strength of preference did not differ significantly.

Notes: A model was developed to predict an optimal interstimulus interval during testing for samples of products (such as salsa) that contain capsaicin. Oral “heat burn” intensity for four levels of salsa (mild, 25,000 Scoville Heat Units [SHU]; medium, 70,000 SHU; hot, 130,000 SHU; and extra hot, 250,000 SHU) was evaluated over time using a trained, experienced five-member descriptive sensory analysis panel. As capsaicin concentrations increased, the time it took for heat perception in the mouth to return to a negligible sensory value increased – a result of the higher amount of heat burn that must dissipate and a slower rate of decay after samples with more intense heat burn. Although a slight sensitization trend may occur with mild and medium salsas, and a slight trend toward desensitization may occur for the hot sample, the maximum intensity ratings after repeated tastings were not significantly different, and real perceptual differences may not exist. Two models were developed that can be used to predict the time required between samples – one based on SHU values and the other based on initial sensory heat score. This information can be used by sensory researchers to approximate the necessary interstimulus interval between salsa samples during sensory testing by trained panels to avoid carryover effects from one sample to another.

Notes: Monitoring performance is essential for the efficient use of a sensory panel both during training and while carrying out product assessments. We present a concise procedure to monitor panel performance based on classical statistical methods. The program includes tests for the ability to discriminate between products, repeatability of assessments, scale use, agreement between panelists and a principal component analysis map of panelist means across attributes. The algorithm is implemented in R – a state-of-the-art, freely available statistical software package. The program output is summarized in graphs and tables. This easily applicable panel performance procedure is aimed at improving sensory practice, especially in areas where the use of highly complex systems is not feasible.

Notes: Effects of serving size, gender, age, tea type, tea-making technique and water quality on the sensory attributes (appearance, aroma and taste), overall acceptability and preference of Rooibos tea were investigated. In general, there were significant effects of age and main factor interactions on the attributes and product acceptability (P ≤ 0.05). The interaction of serving size, gender and age affected the acceptability of Rooibos (P ≤ 0.05). Although there was significant difference between natural and vanilla-flavored tea in terms of color, clarity, odor and taste (P ≤ 0.05), no difference was observed in the product acceptability (P 〉 0.05). The tea-making technique only affected the odor, with traditionally brewed tea having lower intensity scores than the infused tea. The tea prepared using natural spring water was found to be clearer and had higher acceptability scores than the tea prepared using tap water (P ≤ 0.05). There was no existing significant preference for the natural Rooibos over the vanilla-flavored one, and the traditionally brewed tea over the infused one; however, the tea prepared using the spring water was preferred over the one prepared using tap water.

Notes: Smokeless tobacco and nontobacco users differed for certain concentrations of perceived intensities of the four solutions – significantly for sweet (P ≤ 0.008) and salty (P = 0.001). Sensitivity to salty (P = 0.02) and bitter (P = 0.11) solutions decreased with increasing hours of exposure to smokeless tobacco. Smokeless tobacco and nontobacco users rated fruits and vegetables for preference and the four taste senses differently, with a decreasing trend for sweet tastes in smokeless tobacco users with increasing hours of exposure to smokeless tobacco. Smokeless tobacco users consumed more total fat (P = 0.06) and fat per 1000 kcal (P = 0.13) than nontobacco users. Higher intakes of total fat (P = 0.005), total fat per 1000 kcal (P = 0.18), total sodium (P = 0.03) and total Vitamin E (P = 0.06) were found with increasing hours of exposure to smokeless tobacco. Although fruit and vegetable intakes did not differ between smokeless tobacco and nontobacco users, both groups should increase their consumption of fruits and vegetables.

Notes: When products are physically identical, consumers will choose a no-preference option in a paired preference test only about 30% of the time, giving a nonintuitive result. We evaluated the no-preference false alarm rate in dairy products and the potential sources of error in panelist behavior, including discrimination problems and poor repeatability of judgments. Paired preference tests were conducted with milk (2% versus nonfat or skim), with cottage cheese (4% versus nonfat) and with identical samples. Triangle, dual standard and same/different discrimination tests were also conducted. The no-preference option was chosen by about 30% of the consumers when samples were identical, and less frequently when samples were different. Discrimination performance, although statistically significant, was poorer than expected with about 30% discriminators (d′ of 1.7) in most tests. Even in the dual standard tests on milk (visually obvious and with references present), performance was only 88% correct (76% discriminators). Repeatability in preference tests was also poorer than expected, with only 56% choosing the same preference option for different samples on repeat trials although the group preferences were stable. Same/different tests indicated that over 50% of the consumers called identical samples different, although this fell short of explaining the 70% average false alarm rate in preferences. Even with apparently discriminable consumer products, accurate discrimination of the samples and repeatability of preferences should not be assumed. Random responding may contribute to error variance and produce nonsensical results such as the expression of choice between identical samples.

Notes: The objective of this study was to investigate the usefulness of an array of statistical techniques to describe relationships between instrumental data and non-oral sensory texture profiling scores by using a range of model processed cheese analogs as example. Pairwise correlation, used as an exploratory tool, showed no significant correlation for flexibility and greasiness with any individual instrumental parameter. Stepwise regression, principal component regression and partial least squares regression were used to generate models for firmness, stickiness and curdiness of the analogs studied. No models could be generated for flexibility and greasiness, and models for rubberiness had poor quality of fit compared with the other sensory attributes. In general, firmness, stickiness and curdiness were satisfactorily modeled by using chemical data and small deformation rheological parameters. Compression data (large deformation), often used in correlation studies regarding the texture of cheese, did not necessarily lead to better correlation results in comparison with other instrumental parameters used in this research.

Notes: This article deals with a functional approach based on the projection upon a B-spline basis in order to analyze Time Intensity curves. The modelization is followed, on the one hand, by the assessment of the repeatability and the discrimination ability of the panelists, and on the other hand, by the determination of a good compromise over repetitions. Finally, a multidimensional analysis enables the comparison of the shapes of the curves associated with the assessors (assessors’ signature) and the characterization of the products. The properties of this functional approach are illustrated with TI curves describing sweetness variations of drinks.

Notes: Sensory evaluation departments (SEDs) in most companies underutilize the expertise of the internal information technology departments (ITDs). This research reports on the state of sensory evaluation data management practices (SEDMP) and the level of interaction with the ITD. An Internet-based survey was distributed to sensory evaluation professionals (n = 378) and 21.4% responded. About half (50.6%) of the respondents were satisfied with SEDMP while 40.7% were not. Inadequate data storage systems and the lack of resources negatively influenced their satisfaction with SEDMP, while interaction with the ITD had a positive effect. Excel, MS Access and Oracle were used by 67.9%, 38.2% and 2.4% of the respondents, respectively. Most sensory professionals (86.4%) reported not having training in data management. Although 48.2% of the SEDs had the ability to develop relational databases, this skill was not reflected in how data were being managed.

Notes: One hundred and one consumers assessed three strawberry-flavored yogurts, using the 9-point hedonic scale and a purchase intent scale, both blind and with their appropriate cartons. They were then monitored for a year, to determine whether their ratings had any predictive value for their purchase behavior. It was found that the highest rated yogurts tended to be the ones that were purchased during the year. Any correspondence between rank order of rating and of purchase frequency was negligible. Predictions were better when the yogurts were rated with their cartons. The ratings were a better predictor of purchase frequency than price. Various consistency measures were also made.

Notes: This note presents a discussion of direct scaling versus paired comparison from the viewpoint of historical, design, field, analytical and interpretation issues. A lot of sensory and consumer research use procedures such as direct measurement, which in turn can lead to major development-relevant insights. At the same time, other research with the same objectives uses choice methods, which in the author's mind do not, and cannot, lead to these desired development-relevant insights. It is important to differentiate between the two types of approaches and understand their pros and cons, as well as their intellectual histories. Simply choosing a measurement procedure by the diktat of management or of current fads may actually be counterproductive to the specific task in particular, and to the field of sensory research in general.

Notes: The evaluation of panel performance was made by three methods: average of correct responses (A), comparison of distances of individual standardized judgments to the average standardized responses (D) and a principal components analysis (PCA). Thirty assessors identified water and basic tastes and discriminated different sweet stimuli in neutral or acidified vehicles using R-index rating and ranking tests. By A and D methods 22 assessors were qualified as proficient. Composition of both panels was identical except for one judge. The output from PCA provided a graphical representation of the performance of the assessors and retained different subsets of 24–26 panelists for different proposals as discrimination of sweetness in acidified beverages, recognition of bitterness, sourness and discrimination of slight sweetness or evaluation of saltiness.

Notes: The objective of this work was to compare a panel of blind assessors with one of sighted assessors in the discrimination of food products. Each panel had 20 screened and trained assessors. Five commercial food products were used: crackers, liver paste, powdered orange juice mix, Reggiano cheese and yogurt. Slight flavor and/or texture modifications were introduced for adequate discrimination difficulty. Each pair of products was tested by both panels using the triangle test and a scaled difference from control test. Numbers of correct answers for the triangle test were similar for both panels. There were minor differences between the panels in the difference from control test, due to the sighted panel having more training in the use of the scale. Overall the panels of trained blind and sighted assessors were equivalent in their performance.

Notes: A quick and easy way to monitor the performance of individual sensory assessors during long-term fishery projects was presented. By serving the same product as a reference before each session, assessors could easily recapitulate the descriptors and recalibrate their evaluations to the same scale. No drifting was found during an evaluation period of 19 months, and this was a result of the continuous use of the reference. Serving the reference as an unknown sample made it possible to monitor the performance of the panel. Multivariate data analytical techniques allowed for quick calculations, and results were easily interpreted with the visual layout. Assessors differing from the rest of the panel could be quickly identified as well as the descriptors involved in the deviations. Three assessors were found to use different parts of the scale than the main panel, and one assessor evaluated one descriptor differently than the average panel. After correction for level effect, no difference existed between assessors.

Notes: The beta-binomial model accounts for variability between samples as well as variability between judges (overdispersion), making it possible to combine responses across judges and replications. Overdispersion (measured by gamma) was examined in this 3-part study. (1) Groups of judges (n = 53–59) performed two replications each of a paired comparison and paired preference. Results showed that extent of overdispersion could not be predicted from the method. (2) The stability of gamma across discrimination methods (2-alternative forced choice [2-AFC], 3-alternative forced choice [3-AFC], triangle and duo-trio) was also examined (n = 103). Results indicated that gamma was largely consistent across 2-AFC, 3-AFC and triangle tasks, but it was higher in the duo-trio task. (3) The stability of gamma over time was also investigated (n = 25). Results demonstrate that overdispersion varied over time with no clear pattern. In all cases, use of the beta-binomial model allowed responses across judges and replications to be combined, increasing the power achieved for a given panel size.

Notes: Because toothpaste and other menthol/surfactant-containing products have residual effects, researchers should ensure that enough time has elapsed between use of toothpaste and evaluation of food products. In this study, orange juice, coffee, sausage and processed cheese were profiled under controlled conditions and at 4, 12, 30 and 60 min after panelists brushed with a strongly mentholated toothpaste. Residual effects of the toothpaste at 4 min reduced several aromatic attributes, but did not affect most fundamental taste or texture attributes. A mint aromatic was observed in some food products after toothpaste use, even after 12 min. Chemesthetic attributes were diminished when a product was presented within 12 min of brushing. Results suggested that the amount of time needed between brushing and tasting depended on the food product. Orange juice, an acidic beverage, required at least an hour's delay; fatty, solid foods could be tasted almost immediately after toothbrushing if provided a warm-up sample first.

Notes: The objectives of the present study were (1) to identify specific sensory patterns for several cheese varieties, paying special attention to ewe's milk cheeses, (2) to describe nonewe's milk cheeses (goat, cow, milk mixture) relationships within the considered ewe's milk cheese sensory space and (3) to evaluate if a lexicon specifically suited for ewe's milk cheeses’ description was useful for other sources of milk cheeses’ sensory assessment. A lexicon specifically adapted for ewe's milk cheese sensory description was employed. Results from Linear Discriminant Analysis showed that ewe's milk cheese varieties have unique sensory characteristics that are very different from each other. Cow milk variety was the closest to one of the ewe's milk cheese category; however, a deeper analysis showed both products had very specific sensory properties. The ewe's milk cheese descriptive lexicon is adequate to discriminate among nonovine varieties. However, updates may be necessary for a complete sensory characterization.

Notes: Sensory testing with children can provide important insight into their likes and dislikes. Sensory professionals need to use methods that are appropriate for different age groups. This article reviews the current state of knowledge in this area and stresses the importance of considering the sensory, cognitive and social factors that may impact how best to conduct testing with children.

Notes: Free-choice profiling (FCP) was carried out in order to investigate how naive consumers (who had never tried the product before) described and perceived passion-fruit juice. This method allows participants to use their own attributes to describe and quantify food products and beverages. The study used four different samples of passion-fruit juice, analyzed by 10 consumers in three replicates. The data were analyzed by using generalized Procrustes analysis. The first and second dimension accounted for 78.7% of the variance. The product consensus configuration revealed that assessors were able to reproduce samples’ description, and also to differentiate samples. Free-choice profiling is a useful method for describing consumer perception of passion-fruit juice.

Notes: The effect of price information on hedonic and use intention responses to a chocolate bar was investigated in the absence and presence of a health claim related to energy, satiety value and cholesterol content. First, Finnish students (n = 79) tasted and rated blind three chocolate bars (one regular, two containing functional ingredients). Second, one group (“Informed,” n = 40) evaluated the samples with the health claim and price information, the other group (“Control,” n = 39) as a regular bar with price information only. A separate focus group (n = 6) interview was conducted to obtain further views of the claim and samples. Neither the health claim nor the price affected pleasantness ratings, while the increasing price significantly reduced the likelihood of buying and preferred frequency of eating the chocolate bar in both groups. Price affected the likelihood of buying more strongly among females than among males, and involvement with chocolate bars affected the likelihood of buying in the control, but not in the informed group. The focus group interview indicated that healthfulness might be irrelevant for chocolate products. Overall, price heavily affected the likelihood of buying the target product, but price and the health claim were incapable of altering hedonic responses to it.

Notes: Purpose - The purpose of this paper is to express a general review on how best in the present time can one market genetically modified (GM) foods in the face of the controversial arguments faced globally. Despite the importance of marketing, many organizations though they understand its worth, fail to find radical strategic solutions for the problems encountered by their products. In fact most of them find that disclosing GM ingredients will prohibit consumers from buying their products, whilst, the few GM foods that were proactively marketed indicated the potential of effective marketing and successful product placement. Design/methodology/approach - To be able to market GM foods, an understanding of customer value and problems customers envisage is discussed. The paper attempts to provide a general global perspective on consumer's views about these issues and with the help of a conceptual model it attempts to identify some of the problems related with marketing GM foods. Findings - The findings indicate that these products would have to be repositioned as being seen as less risky and more beneficial to consumers in the light that they can be scientifically proven. Originality/value - This research is innovative in the sense it demonstrates an understanding of how to provide customer value for not only consumers who are the ultimate end users but also provides an insight to a broader audience such as manufacturers, agriculturalists and marketing professionals as to what are some of the contributing factors that consumers look for to make an informed choice.

Notes: Purpose - The aim of the paper is to evaluate the microbiological and physico-chemical characteristics of fermented pounded yam, a unique and popular food of the Igbominas of Nigeria. Design/methodology/approach - Fresh pounded yam was prepared in the laboratory by a modification of the traditional method, and then fermented for varying periods of time (0-96hrs), also essentially by the traditional method. Analysis was carried out on the products following documented and established procedures. Findings - Data obtained indicated noticeable increases in the populations of all the groups of microorganisms investigated with increases in fermentation time, except coliforms which declined in population after 24 hours. Heating of the samples after each fermentation interval resulted in significant reductions in microbial populations such that coliforms could not even be detected after 24 hours of fermentation. Lactic acid production, an indication of flavour development, and pH drop were highest at 48 hours of fermentation. The samples also became softer with increases in fermentation period. The heated samples were considered safe microbiologically, since they contained neither coliforms nor faecal coliforms. Research limitations/implications - The consumption of fermented pounded yam is encouraged since it is safe microbiologically and develops a desired flavour, while further research should be carried out on the nutritional benefits. Practical implications - The findings here suggested that adequate heating after fermentation is necessary to eliminate any potential microbial contamination, and for full flavour development. Originality/value - The results of this research contribute to the knowledge of fermented foods, especially those that are indigenous to Nigeria and West Africa.

Notes: Purpose - The aim of the study is to integrate food hygiene into quantity food production systems. Design/methodology/approach - The present study illustrates the concepts of food hygiene and standard operation of food production systems in detail, and it integrates both of these concepts evidencing that an integrated system can be used as a primary function of every establishment with regard to serving food safely. Findings - A successful food hygiene system must consist of four components: maintaining safe conditions for the food from the time of purchasing to the time it is served to the customer, development of hygienic behavior in the employees that come in contact, in any way, with the customers' meal, maintaining clean and sanitary facilities, and application of an adequate Pest Control Management system. Originality/value - By integrating food hygiene into the operational systems, a powerful message will be sent to the personnel; that food hygiene is a primary function of the establishment and must at all times be enforced.

Notes: Purpose - The aim was to look at food-allergic consumers' preferences concerning the development of low-allergen food. Design/methodology/approach - A questionnaire was designed to measure attitudes towards low-allergen food. Data were collected from 20 food-allergic consumers in Austria, Spain and The Netherlands respectively between April and May 2002 using interviewer-assisted questionnaire methodology. Findings - The results suggested that food-allergic consumers are interested in having low-allergen food available, with 70-95 per cent wanting it produced. A total of 89 per cent identified a number of benefits to themselves, including being able to resume eating the food to which they were allergic, and being able to eat all food with no worries, no symptoms and no need to check labels. Fewer disadvantages were mentioned, with 53 per cent identifying no disadvantages. Factors that would encourage or discourage purchase of low-allergen food were also identified with price, quality (particularly taste) and safety being important. Whilst acceptance of low-allergen food produced using genetic modification was reasonably high (55-85 per cent), in general participants would prefer this food to be produced through conventional means. Research limitations/implications - Further research is required with a larger sample, where cross-cultural statistical comparisons can be made. Originality/value This study provides new information about acceptability of low-allergen food which is of use for the food industry when developing such food, benefiting both the industry and food-allergic consumers.

Notes: Purpose - This pilot study seeks to evaluate whether dietary intervention combined with an oral formulation of sodium salicylate, mineral and vitamin supplements (CV247) altered the rate of progression in patients with malignant disease. Design/methodology/approach - A total of 37 patients were recruited from March 2001 to November 2001 and ran to September 2004. All patients had progressive malignancy at trial entry (def: at least two consecutive increases in tumour markers 〉10 per cent or radiological progression). Patients, were recommended a diet rich in fresh fruit, vegetables, low in saturated fats, salt and man-made chemical supplements such as colours and preservatives together with oral CV247 (sodium salicylate, copper gluconate, manganese gluconate and ascorbic acid). Dietary compliance was monitored, from a subgroup, by monthly interviews with the trial dietitian recorded on a linear analogue scale. Quality of life was measured by monthly completion of a Rotterdam symptom check-list questionnaire and tumour progression measured by radiological assessment and/or tumour markers. Findings - The treatment was well tolerated and compliance with the diet was enthusiastic. Of the two patients with progressive metastatic ovarian carcinoma, one had stabilisation in the disease for five months, the other for 20 months. The 28 heavily pre-treated patients (including those with metastatic prostate cancer) had no significant clinical response (52 per cent stabilisation for 3.5 months). Of the seven patients with early prostate cancer (no metastasis or hormonal therapy, with pre-trial increasing PSA), six (86 per cent) had stabilisation of PSA with a mean duration of 17.2 months. Originality/value - This study succeeded in evaluating whether dietary intervention combined with an oral formulation of sodium salicylate, mineral and vitamin supplements (CV247) altered the rate of progression in patients with malignant disease.

Notes: Purpose - Yoghurt consists of approximately 60 per cent of per capita dairy consumption of Iranian people. Iranian dairy factories use commercial starters which are expensive in yoghurt production. Moreover, yoghurt produced by these starters does not completely meet the taste of Iranian consumers. The aims of this study are to produce well qualified yoghurt from isolated native starters and to evaluate microbial, chemical and organoleptic characteristics of products. Design/methodology/approach - The microflora of Iranian native yoghurts were isolated, purified and identified. The isolated strains were used as starter for the production of yoghurts. Sensory evaluation and measurement of pH, acidity and acetaldehyde content of the samples were carried out. Acidity, pH, acetaldehyde content, and microbial population of the best samples were measured during 21 days of cold storage. SPSS software was used for statistical analysis. Findings - During the above mentioned storage period, acidity and acetaldehyde content increased significantly (p?〈?0.05). Significant decreases (p?〈?0.05) were observed in pH and microbial population. No significant difference in organoleptic characteristics (taste, smell and texture) were found after 21 days of cold storage. Originality/value - Yoghurt production by native starter cultures instead of commercial ones is beneficial in respect of both economic and organoleptic aspects. The results indicate that the use of isolated native yoghurt starters in manufacturing yoghurt can be satisfactory and can also be extended to the production of yoghurt on an industrial scale.

Notes: Purpose - Aims to extract Rice bran oil (RBO) from Pakistani cultivar Basmati-385 for efficient use of local rice industrial waste, i.e. rice bran to reduce the import of edible oil and to evaluate the suitability of RBO in baked products by making cookies. Design/methodology/approach - RBO was extracted from stabilized rice bran by solvent extraction. The RBO obtained was analyzed for different quality parameters and further applied into baked products such as cookies at various levels, i.e. 0, 25, 50, 75 and 100 per cent, by gradually replacing normal shortening to check its suitability as a shortening and its effectiveness in extending the shelf life of product due to its natural antioxidants. Five treatments of RBO and normal shortening (NS) (T1?=?100 per cent NS +?0 per cent RBO, T2?=?75 per cent NS +?25 per cent RBO, T3?=?50 per cent NS +?50 per cent RBO, T4?=?25 per cent NS +?75 per cent RBO and T5?=?0 per cent NS +?100 per cent RBO) were used to prepare cookies and 45 days, storage study was conducted. Findings - Various treatments and storage have a highly significant effect on moisture, fat and NFE content of cookies. Protein content of cookies remained unaffected by changing treatments. During 45 days, storage moisture, protein, fat and NFE content decreased significantly. Physical studies revealed increase in width and spread factor of cookies, while thickness was reduced, gradually with the proportionate increase of RBO. There was significant decrease in quality score of cookies for color, taste, flavor, crispness, texture and overall acceptability. Treatment T3 (50 per cent NS +?50 per cent RBO) got the highest score for all the sensory attributes. Practical implications - The present study suggests that T3 (50 per cent NS +?50 per cent RBO) can produce superior quality cookies to prove the effectiveness of RBO as bakery shortening. Originality/value - Although Pakistan is an agricultural country, unfortunately 71 per cent of the country's edible oil requirements are met through the import of edible oil. In the present project the possibility of RBO extraction from local variety was evaluated. In this way, if fully explored, RBO can become the fourth indigenous source of edible oil.

Notes: Purpose - The snacking habits of children can be a cause for concern. Little research has been undertaken on the snacking habits of Mauritian schoolchildren. This study was conducted to identify the popular snacks upper primary schoolchildren (8-12 year old) buy at school. It also aimed at determining the factors that influenced children's purchase of snacks. Design/methodology/approach - Twelve primary schools were selected using stratified random sampling. Thirty children from each school were involved. Data collection methods included an interviewer-administered questionnaire and observation of schoolchildren's snacking habits during lunch-time. Canteen sellers were also interviewed to gather information about the most popular snacks and their cost. Findings - Findings revealed that most of the popular snacks were high in sugar, fat, energy or salt. Snacking habit of schoolchildren was significantly associated with age and gender (p〈0.05). Children's snacking habit seemed to be largely influenced by the cost of snacks, their taste and availability, and the amount of pocket money. Originality/value - Previous studies on snacking habits have focused on lower primary schoolchildren (5-7 year old) and adolescents, while this study has focused on the upper primary schoolchildren (8-12 year old). The findings provide a sound basis for health and education authorities to develop a national policy on the sale of nutritious foods in primary school canteens.

Notes: Purpose - The purpose of this literature review is to examine underlying mechanisms through which soy may affect breast cancer risk. Design/methodology/approach - The approach taken is to summarize the emerging mechanisms of how isoflavones, such as genistein, interact with processes leading to breast cancer. Findings - The key finding of this analysis is that these mechanisms include a multitude of contrasting effects of genistein on estrogenic and non-estrogenic signaling pathways controlling cell growth. Furthermore, several of these mechanisms are also regulated by additional dietary factors, such as omega-3 fatty acids (found e.g. in fish) and various other phytochemicals (factors found generally in plant-based foods). The available mechanistic information supports (i) a potent effect of dietary factors on cell growth and (ii) a synergistic effect of different dietary components, such as soy, fish, and plant-based foods. Practical implications - In conclusion, the practical implication of this analysis is the conclusion that the mechanistic information available at this time does not support a recommendation for an isolated increase in soy to decrease breast cancer risk. Originality/value - This article should be of value for health care providers, nutritionists, and consumers.

Notes: Purpose - The purpose of this paper is to outline some of the benefits and limitations of the new Welsh Hygiene Award Scheme. Design/methodology/approach - The benefits and limitations of the scheme are considered in relation to consumers and the industry. Findings - The Welsh Hygiene Award Scheme appears to be popular with award winners, some of the local authorities and most of the public who are aware of it. It is too early to determine whether the initiative has resulted in an overall improvement in the hygiene standards of businesses. Unfortunately, the initiative does not inform the public of actual standards in food premises. This lack of transparency mainly relates to a lack of information for businesses and the public, limited publicity for the scheme in the media and the evident need to educate the public. Originality/value - It adds to the limited literature on the evaluation of similar initiatives. Given that the FSA is considering the option of launching a national food hygiene award scheme, there is a need to carefully evaluate this and other schemes before finalising options.

Notes: Purpose - The purpose of this literature review is to examine the relationship between soy consumption and breast cancer risk since soy isoflavones, such as genistein, are currently discussed as possible breast cancer-fighting agents in the Asian diet. Design/methodology/approach - The approach taken is to summarize and evaluate the available literature on the effect of soy, and the Asian diet, on breast cancer risk. Findings - A key finding of the current analysis is that the effect of genistein depends strongly on dosage and developmental stage during which exposure occurs. The overall conclusion and value of this comprehensive analysis is that the available evidence does not support a recommendation for increased soy consumption as a breast cancer-preventing agent against the background of a Western diet. Instead, additional general components of the Asian diet, such as fish and plant-based food, may be involved in lowering breast cancer risk. Research limitations/implications - A limitation to drawing final conclusions at this time is that further research is clearly needed to better understand the overall effect of soy and other dietary factors. Practical implications - The practical implication for health care providers, nutritionists, and consumers is therefore a recommendation to avoid isoflavone supplements and enhanced soy consumption alone at this time without an increased intake of the other Asian diet components. Originality/value - This review arrives at new conclusions about the connection between soy and breast cancer that are summarized under findings and should be valuable for health care providers, nutritionists, and consumers

Notes: Purpose - Critical assessment of Government proposals to introduce Healthy Start, the first reform of the Welfare Food Scheme for over 60 years. Design/methodology/approach - Consideration has been made of the changes proposed in the new Healthy Start programme. While credit is given for the advantages in the new scheme, an assessment is made of deficiencies in the new proposals and suggestions made of what still needs to be incorporated into the plans before Healthy Start is launched in 2005. Findings - Sixty years after the wartime Government established the Welfare Food Scheme in 1940, the present Government, proposes to replace the Welfare Food Scheme with Healthy Start amid concerns that early nutrition of many infants and children is not optimal. Many components of the new scheme have been broadly welcomed, but there is considerable disquiet that the proposals fall short of what was proposed by a COMA Scientific Review Panel in 2002. Nutritional problems such as iron and vitamin D deficiency are being largely neglected. The opportunity to include follow-on formula, is being ignored. This will adversely affect the nutrition of infants and children in some of the poorest families in the country. Practical implications - Unless changes are made, an opportunity is being lost because the new proposals fall short of what is desirable. Originality/value - A review has been made of the new Healthy Start scheme for infants, children and their mothers before the scheme is implemented. It is important that revisions are made before the scheme is launched.

Notes: Purpose - Fungal growth on UF-Feta cheese is one of the most important factors of consumer dissatisfaction in Iran. Propionibacterium shermanii metabolites was used as a biopreservative to retard this inconvenient. This research was done to determine the concentration of the metabolite that increases cheese shelf life with no adverse effect on sensory properties. Design/methodology/approach - The cheese was manufactured according to the methods used in the Iranian UF-Feta cheese dairy plants. The metabolite was used in the order of 0.5 and 1 per cent (w/w) of retentate weight. After incubation while reaching the required pH, cheese samples were stored at two temperatures including 4 and 25 degree C in which analysis was done during a period of 90 and 70 days respectively. Effect of the metabolite on shelf life (absence of visible fungi growth), total viable fungi, microbial load, pH as well as sensory properties including taste, odour, colour and overall acceptability was compared with the control (untreated sample). Findings - Results showed that the shelf life duration of the cheese was extended by approx. 35–43 per cent. Total viable fungi was most efficiently reduced using the metabolite but there was no significant differences in microbial load. Addition of the metabolite didn't affect pH of cheese at either temperatures compared with control. Results of sensory evaluation showed that the taste and odour of cheese containing 0.5 per cent of the metabolite was preferred as compare to the others (p〈0.1). The intervension had no effect no effect on colour scores of cheese. The texture of control was better than the others (p〈0.1). Originality/value - In UF-Feta cheese, the presence of fungi represents a major concern for cheese manufacturers. The results indicate that the fungal growth can be minimized using Propionibacterium shermanii metabolites without undesirable effects on sensory properties. The potential of the metabolite to inhibit yeast growth on UF-Feta cheese was a new finding in this research.

Notes: Purpose - Wheat is considered nutritionally poor, due to deficiency of essential amino acids such as lysine and threonine, whereas fenugreek (Trigonella faenum graecum L.) flour has a high protein content (25 per cent), lysins (5.7g/16gN), soluble (20 per cent) and insoluble (28 per cent) dietary fibre besides being rich in calcium, iron and beta-carotene. Fenugreek seeds contain 20 per cent soluble fibre (gum), which can act as functional agent in wheat dough. The presence of bitter saponins in fenugreek seeds limits their acceptability in foods. However, it has been possible to debitter fenugreek seeds by using various domestic processing methods. Therefore, their use can be exploited as functional and nutritional food as well as therapeutic agents. Hence, in the present study efforts have been made to develop wheat-fenugreek-based health bread. Design/methodology/approach - In commonly grown varieties of wheat, namely WH-423, and fenugreek namely Pusa, early bunching was obtained. Fenugreek seeds were divided into three portions. One portion was left unprocessed (raw), while the other two portions were soaked (12hr at 37?C) and germinated (48hr at 37?C) separately. Soaked and germinated samples were dried at 55-60?C. Dried samples of raw, soaked and germinated seeds were ground to fine powder. Fenugreek seed powder (raw, soaked and germinated) was blended separately with wheat flour at different levels, namely 5, 10, 15 and 20 per cent. Breads from control and supplemented flours were baked in replicates. Baking, organoleptic and nutritional characteristics were analysed in the control and supplemented breads. The data were statistically analyzed in complete randomized design for analysis of variance according to the standard method. Findings - Supplementation of wheat flour with fenugreek flour from 5 to 20 per cent levels increased the protein, lysine, minerals and fibre contents of bread. Additions of fenugreek (raw, soaked and germinated) up to the level of 15 per cent produced bread with a satisfactory loaf volume and other sensory quality attributes (crumb colour, crumb texture, taste etc.), whereas the 20 per cent level of supplementation caused a depression effect in loaf volume and the breads were found to be bitter in taste, However, among the various supplemented breads, germinated fenugreek flour-supplemented bread at 15 per cent level showed satisfactory baking and organoleptic characteristics and contained an appreciable amount of protein (24 per cent), total lysine (3.02g/100g protein), dietary fibre (12.04 per cent) and minerals. Practical implications - Fast food are becoming as popular, as in developing countries. Keeping this fact in view, in the present study, health breads were prepared. The developed product had good acceptability, was nutritionally rich and had therapeutic value. So, these can be considered for commercialization. Originality/value - As fenugreek seeds contain 20 per cent soluble fibre (gum), and 5.7g/16gN lysine contents, the soluble fibre of fenugreek seeds has been reported to reduce blood sugar and cholesterol levels. Therefore, their use can be exploited in the development of health foods.

Notes: Purpose - The purpose of this review is to examine the effect of nutrition on mental functions of children and adolescents. Design/methodology/approach - The approach taken is to evaluate published research on key dietary factors, including recent, rigorously designed supplementation studies. Findings - The result of this analysis is that nutrition has potent effects on brain function. It is concluded that protein, iron, iodine, and the consumption of breakfast all impact on a child's learning capability and behaviour. Moreover, recent research has identified additional, potent roles of micronutrients, such as essential fatty acids, minerals, and vitamins, in the prevention of learning and behavioural disorders. Among the latter, this review focuses particularly on attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Research limitations/implications - While several controlled supplementation trials with supplementation are now available, the limitation of the present analysis is that more large-scale trials are needed before final conclusions can be reached. Practical implications - The practical implication of this review for health-care providers, nutritionists, teachers, and parents at this time is that enough promising evidence has be accumulated to warrant a recommendation to include adequate levels of minerals, vitamins, essential fatty acids, and other nutrients in children's diets to improve learning and behaviour. Originality/value - This review is unique in its comprehensive nature and provides a synopsis of the power of diet in influencing learning and behavior for professionals and parents.

Notes: Purpose - To develop a method for the preparation of micaceous zinc ferrite (MZF), anticorrosive pigment having desirable chemical and physical properties. Design/methodology/approach - MZF pigment was prepared after firing the oxidised solid molten salts without washing. The MZF pigment obtained was characterised using X-ray diffraction analysis, crystal size analysis, scanning electron microscope and energy dispersive X-ray analysis. The pigment obtained was also evaluated chemically with respect to moisture content, content of water-soluble salts, hydrogen ion concentration (pH) and weight loss; and physically with respect to particle shape, colour, specific gravity and oil absorption. Commercially available micaceous iron oxide and zinc ferrite pigments were also characterised in comparison. Findings - A spinel, MZF pigment was prepared using relevant oxidised solid molten salts. The preparation produced a lamellar structure with a basic nature giving not only barrier protection but also chemical passivation of the substrate. Research limitations/implications - The anticorrosive properties of the pigments obtained could be evaluated using more conventional methods such as salt-spray test. Practical implications - The pigment prepared could be used as a highly efficient pigment for anticorrosion coating for steel. Originality/value - The method for the preparation of MZF pigment was novel. The pigment obtained could be used in various resin systems to produce anticorrosive paints for steel protection.

Notes: Purpose - To evaluate the efficiency of complex esters as plasticizers in polyvinyl chloride plastisols and plasticates. Design/methodology/approach - Several poly(vinyl chloride) plastisols and plasticates were prepared with standard phthalate plasticizers and complex esters and were characterised using standard and laboratory methods. Findings - The use of mixtures of three new CE with standard phthalate plasticizers increased the physical, mechanical and electric characteristics of the resulting PVCPs and PVCPl. Research limitations/implications - The use of three new CE, obtained by esterification of dicarboxylic acids (adipic, sebacic, pelargonic), poly(ethylene glycol) and i-octanole, as plasticizers of poly(vinyl chloride) plastisols and plasticates was investigated. The use of CE based on other organic acids could be explored. Practical implications - The results confirmed the efficiency of plasticization of PVC by CE. Such a finding has significant industrial implication. Originality/value - Several findings are original and are of importance to relevant industry. The new CE with high molecular weights were effective plasticizers of PVC. The efficiency of the plasticizers depended on their chemical structure. The molecular weight of the CE had no influence on the compatibility of plasticizers and other components of the PVC plastisols and plasticates.

Notes: Purpose - To prepare and characterise organotin polymers via a new synthetic route by exchange reactions of poly-N-acryloyloxy- and poly-N-methacryloyloxy-tetrabromophthalimide with hydroxy- and aminotri-n-butyltin benzoates. Design/methodology/approach - Preparation of N-acryloyloxytetrabromophthalimide (NATP) and N-methacryloyloxytetrabromophthalimide (NMTP) by the reaction of N-hydroxytetrabromo-phthalimide with acryloyl or methacryloyl chloride. The exchange reactions of the resulting polymers with amino and hydroxytri-n-butyltin benzoate were carried out. The structure of the resulting compounds was characterised. Findings - NATP and NMTP were prepared by the reaction of N-hydroxy-tetrabromophthalimide with acryloyl or methacryloyl chloride in the presence of TEA. The monomers prepared were easily polymerised. The exchange reactions of poly-NATP and poly-NMTP with amino and hydroxytri-n-butyltin benzoate were studied. The structure of the polymers and copolymers prepared was confirmed by tin analysis, IR and 1HNR spectroscopy. Research limitations/implications - The new monomer described in the present investigation may be useful for the preparation of organotin polymers by a new synthetic route. Also, the organotin polymers prepared had good film properties and were suitable for film formation. Practical implications - The method for the preparation of monomer is simple and the exchange reactions provide a simple and practical solution for preparation of some classes of organotin polymers and copolymers. Originality/value - The method of preparation of organotin polymers was novel and may be useful for preparation of other organotin polymers and copolymers.

Notes: Purpose - Several solid solution combinations of aluminium oxide and iron oxide, for the preparation of a new pigment, were investigated to study the effect of aluminium oxide to iron oxide ratio on various properties of the resulting pigments. Design/methodology/approach - The conditions for the preparation of the pigments via solid solution interaction at 1,000°C had been estimated. Characterisation of three different combinations of aluminium oxide and iron oxide were carried out using spectroscopic methods of analysis via X-ray diffraction (XRD), transmission and scanning electron microscopy (TEM and SEM). Also, evaluation of the pigments prepared, in terms of oil absorption, specific gravity, water-soluble matter, and pH, using international standard testing methods was performed. The pigments prepared were incorporated in anticorrosive paint formulations based on medium oil alkyd resin as a binder. The physico-mechanical properties of the relevant paint films were obtained, while their anticorrosive properties were assessed by tests in 3.5 per cent NaCl solution for 28 days. Findings - The results showed that the anticorrosive protection properties of the pigment prepared were better than their aluminium and iron counterparts. Research limitations/implications - The pigments prepared may be used in different applications other than paint formulations. As the concentration of iron oxide increases, the hardness and the anticorrosive protection performance of the paint film increase. As the concentration of aluminium increases, elasticity, impact resistance and ductility also increase. Application of different combinations of these pigments in paint films had been studied. However, investigation of the application of these pigments in other systems such as plastics could also be interesting. Practical implications - The pigments prepared can be used as reinforcing filler in different rubber and plastic composites, beside its ferro-magnetic properties. As the concentration of alumina increased, the reinforcing and magnetic effects decreased and vice versa. Originality/value - Iron oxide is an abundant ore in several world countries; it is an inorganic, environmentally friendly material, which exhibits good Moh's hardness. Adding aluminium oxide which is a very light element having a unique flaky structure to iron oxide gave a new pigment that can be used not only in paint formulations, but also in rubber and plastic composites as reinforcing fillers.

Notes: Purpose - To evaluate the competing reaction of isocyanate with cellulose and water which can provide direction for further studies on bonding and curing reactions of isocyanate with wood. Design/methodology/approach - Two modern analytical techniques, Fourier transform infra-red (FTIR) and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), were used. The FTIR was used to identify the products of the reaction of phenyl isocyanate (PI) with alcohol, water, and cellulose; while the XPS was used to evaluate the proportions of isocyanate that reacted with water or cellulose when PI reacted with cellulose at different moisture contents (MCs), respectively. Findings - Methods for the IR identifications of reaction results of PI with n-propanol, water, and cellulose, in which the reactions of PI with water and PI with cellulose resulted in N,N'-diphenylurea and carbamate, respectively, were developed. It was discovered that the extent of reaction of isocyanate and cellulose decreased with increasing cellulose MC, and 92.98 per cent isocyanate reacted with water when 9.78 per cent MC was reached. It was confirmed that the products of the PI reaction were distributed mainly on the surface of the cellulose particles. Research limitations/implications - The study only focused on the reaction of PI. However, the industrial isocyanates, e.g. methylene diphenyl diisocyanate (MDI), polymerized methylene diphenyl diisocyanate (p-MDI) that have complexities in chemical structures and components, make analyses with FTIR and XPS impossible. Practical implications - The paper provides some instructive information about the isocyanate reaction that will help understanding the characteristics of isocyanate and guiding the design of technology bonding isocyanate to fibre, wood, etc. Originality/value - The application of FTIR and XPS for evaluating the reaction of isocyanate with cellulose having different MCs was novel and may be used as a reference for other relevant studies.

Notes: Purpose - Preparation of new organotin polymers via a new synthetic route based on the exchange reactions of pentachlorophenyl acrylate or methacrylate with amino-tri-phenyltin benzoates or hydroxyl-tri-phenyltin benzoates. Design/methodology/approach - The pentachlorophenyl acrylate or methacrylate was prepared by polymerisation in solution with azobisisobutyrontrile as a free radical initiator. The polymers obtained were allowed to undergo exchange reactions with amino-tri-phenyltin benzoates or hydroxyl-tri-phenyltin benzoates. The structure of the polymers prepared was confirmed by IR spectroscopy. Films were prepared from purified organotin polymers solution on glass, PVC and tin plates. The release of tin compound from the films, when immersed in aqueous media, was assessed. The concentration of the released tin (ppm) was measured by atomic adsorption spectrophotometer. Findings - The new synthetic route was effective, the organotin polymers prepared had good film properties and the release of tin compounds increased with the content of tin in the organotin polymers. Research limitations/implications - The alkaline resistance of the polymeric films prepared needs improvement. Practical implications - The polymers prepared provide a family of effective polymeric fungicide useful for a number of applications including water sterilisation. Originality/value - The polymers prepared contained pendent triphenyltin moieties which slowly hydrolysed to give fungicidal and antifouling effects.

Notes: Purpose - To evaluate the effects of different levels of quaternised pyrodextrin as wet-end and filler retention aid additives in papermaking. Design/methodology/approach - The pulp furnishes used in this study were a mixture of bleached rice straw pulp with bleached sulphite softwood pulp at a ratio of 60:40. The beaten pulps (never dried) were treated with different grades of modified starch (Pyrodextrins). The results obtained were compared with those of several commercial polymers, such as Accostrength®86, cationic starch and polyacrylamide. Findings - The results obtained from this study showed that addition of 0.3 percent of British Gum (BG) (Degree of Substitution at 0.058) grade pyrodextrin to the pulp slurry, especially in case of kaolin as paper filler gave the most significant improvement in paper properties as well as filler retention. The results obtained also showed that the filler retention and paper properties were better/higher for all pyrodextrins studied than those obtained from both Accostrength®86 and polyacrylamide. Research limitations/implications - Using quaternised pyrodextrins as wet-end additives and filler retention aids improved all mechanical properties of treated paper, except the brightness which decreased very slightly. Practical implications - The grade of pyrodextrins used in this work could be used to improve the physical and strength properties of paper sheets. Originality/value - Different types of pyrodextrin namely, Dexy-84 (D-84), Dexy-86 (D-86) and British Gum (BG) could be used as paper wet-end additives and filler retention aids in paper making processing.

Notes: Purpose - To study the effect of inhibition of new bipyrazole derivatives on the corrosion of steel in HCl media at various temperatures. Design/methodology/approach - In this study, novel corrosion inhibitors, namely bipyrazoles were synthesised and tested as corrosion inhibitors for steel in 1?M HCl. The degree of corrosion was measured using various techniques including weight loss measurements, potentiodynamic polarisation, linear polarisation resistance (Rp) and impedance spectroscopy (EIS). Findings - It was found that 1,5,5'-trimethyl-1H,2'H-3,3'-bipyrazole (P1) gave the best inhibition effect. The inhibition efficiency increased with the concentration of P1 to attain 79 per cent at 10-3?M. Good agreement between the various methods explored was observed. Polarisation measurements also showed that P1 acted essentially as a cathodic inhibitor. The cathodic curves indicated that the reduction of proton at the steel surface was an activating mechanism. P1 adsorbed on the steel surface according to Frumkin adsorption model. Research limitations/implications - The synthesis route offers the possibility of other pyrazolic compounds to be tested in the future. Practical implications - The inhibitory efficiency of P1 increased with the increase of both the concentration and the temperature (in the 298-353?K range). As such, P1 can be used in chemical cleaning and pickling processes. Originality/value - The originality of this work is the synthesis of new inhibitors based on pyrazolic organic compounds.

Notes: Purpose - To evaluate the efficiency of modifying flax fibre using copper ammonia solution for improved dyeability and to optimise the conditions of such a modification. Design/methodology/approach - Treatments of flax fibre using copper ammonia solution were carried out under various conditions, i.e. the compositions of the solution and the length of time for treatment. The dyeability, the dyeing colour depth, the tensile strength and the structure of the untreated and treated flax fibres were characterised. Findings - The modification of flax fabric using copper ammonia solution could improve the dyeability and the dyeing colour depth of the flax fabric. The treatment appeared to reduce the crystallinity and the orientation index of the flax fibre, which was the main cause to the improved dyeability and dyeing colour depth of the flax fabric. The optimum conditions for the treatment were as follows: concentration of Cu2+ at 20?g/L, Cu2+/NH3 ratio at 12?:?1 and time of treatment at 6?min. Research limitations/implications - Whilst effective in improving the dyeability of the flax fibre, the treatment led to a reduction in the tensile strength of the treated flax fabric. Practical implications - The method developed provided a simple and practical solution to improve the dyeability of flax fibre. Originality/value - The method for treatment of flax fibre was novel and could be used for industrial production process.

Notes: Purpose - To prepare modified epoxy resins from resorcinol, cresol and phenol for improved adhesion and chemical resistance. To evaluate the properties of such modified epoxy resins. Design/methodology/approach - Epoxy novolac resins (ENRs) were synthesised by condensing epichlorohydrin with novolacs based on different types of substituted phenols for improving adhesion and chemical resistance. Various compositions were made by incorporating different proportions of polyamide resin. The chemical and adhesive strengths of the conventional epoxy and the modified epoxy resins were characterised. Findings - The modified ENR using substituted phenols showed significant enhancement of chemical and adhesive strengths over the conventional DGEBA resin. The modified ENR had an increased number of glycidyl groups (thus increased functionality) of resin, which was responsible for improved chemical and adhesive strengths over the conventional DGEBA resin. Research limitations/implications - The EPN resins used in the present context was synthesised from phenol, resorcinol and cresol and cured by polyamide resin of different amine values. Besides, it could be synthesised from phenolphthalein p-aminophenol and p-ter-butylcatachol, etc. Practical implications - The method developed provided a simple and practical solution to improving the adhesive and chemical resistance of cured epoxy phenol novolac resins. Originality/value - The method for enhanced adhesive and chemical resistance of cured epoxy was novel and could find numerous applications in surface coating and adhesive.

Notes: Purpose - To investigate the effects of acetylation process as a chemical treatment method to improve the dimensional stability of wood, or as a pre-treatment step to enhance the dimensional stability of wood by impregnates. Design/methodology/approach - Esterification of two species of wood were carried out by vapour and liquid phase acetylation processes. With the vapour phase acetylation process, wood with different acetyl contents were obtained by changing the length of time of treatment. With the liquid phase acetylation, different acetyl content were obtained by changing the acetylating mixture or by activating wood with acetic acid for different periods of time and at different temperatures prior to the acetylation processes. The acetyl content and the conditions of impregnation improving the dimensional stability were modelled and optimised. The success of acetylation process for improving the affinity of wood towards the impregnation was also demonstrated. Findings - Vapour phase acetylation process was preferable over liquid phase acetylation for improving both water resistance and dimensional stability of wood species examined. Liquid acetylating of wood, as a pre-treatment step enhanced the effect of impregnates, especially the linseed oil to improve relevant wood properties. The greater improvement was obtained at 3?h impregnation time and 190°C curing temperature for 1?h. Research limitations/implications - Despite the success in improving the affinity of wood species to novolac by pre-acetylation, increasing the curing time and curing temperature led to deterioration of the water resistance and dimensional stability. Practical implications - Pre-acetylation of the wood provided a practical solution to rendering the natural wood greater water resistance property using commercial impregnates. Originality/value - The method for acetylation of wood prior to impregnation was novel and could be used for inhibiting wood against moisture absorption during storage.

Notes: Purpose - The preparation and characterisation of new bioactive polymeric materials. Design/methodology/approach - New bioactive polysaccharide were prepared by grafting of acrylonitrile onto water soluble starch and then reacting with bioactive heterocyclic rings. The biological activity, against bacteria, of the materials prepared was studied. Findings - Some of the prepared bioactive materials show high disinfecting power against bacteria. Research limitations/implications - The bioactive materials were prepared by grafting acrylonitrile onto starch and then reacting the resulting material with cyanuric acid and 2-aminothiazole. Many other heterocyclic rings that contain tertiary nitrogen atom or amide nitrogen can also be used. Practical implications - The new bioactive materials prepared can be used for disinfecting purposes. Originality/value - Some of the materials prepared were used successfully in killing bacteria, as such, can be used as disinfecting materials.

Notes: Purpose - To evaluate the photochromic performance of photochromic compounds in polymer matrices. Design/methodology/approach - The epoxy resin doped with photochromic fulgide were prepared and the effect of UV irradiation were studied using spectrophotometer. The reversible reaction was effected using white light. The effect of heat was also determined. Findings - A film of fulgide 1-E doped in epoxy polymer was irradiated with UV light (366?nm), the film turned pink. The later colour was switched back to the original colour when the film was irradiated with a white light. The photocoloration and photobleaching obeyed first order rate equations with rate constants being 4.19×10-3?s-1 and 2.86×10-2?s-1, respectively. It was found that the film showed a good fatigue resistance. Another film was preheated at 80°C for 1-4?h. No change in the UV absorption spectra of the film was observed. Similarly, the photocoloration and photobleaching of the annealed film showed first order rate equations with rate constants being 8.77×10-3?s-1 and 4.02×10-2s-1, respectively. Interestingly, the photocoloration and photobleaching reactions of the annealed film were faster than those of the non-annealed film. Research limitations/implications - The epoxy resin doped photochromic fulgides described in the present paper was prepared and studied. The principle of study established can be applied to any type of resin or to any type of photochromic compounds. Practical implications - The photochromic materials developed can be used for different applications, such as coatings and holography. Originality/value - The method developed may be used to enhance the performance of photochromic materials.

Notes: Purpose - To evaluate the corrosion inhibition potential of Datura metel in acid medium on mild steel (MS) with a view to develop green corrosion inhibitors. Design/methodology/approach - Acid extract of the D. metel was studied for its corrosion inhibitive effect by electrochemical and weight loss methods. Using weight loss measurement data, an attempt has been made to probe the mechanism of inhibitive action by fitting adsorption isotherms. Findings - D. metel has been found to show significant corrosion inhibitive effect in acid medium on MS. Inhibition is through adsorption of the phytoconstituents on MS following Tempkin and Langmuir adsorption isotherms. The results of A.C. impedance and polarisation studies correlate well with the weight loss studies. Originality/value - The plant has been investigated for the first time for its corrosion inhibitive effect. The effect has been studied by proven methods. This green inhibitor can find use in the inhibition of corrosion in industries where MS is used as a material of choice for the fabrication of machinery.

Notes: Purpose - Trials to develop environmentally friendly marine paints based on natural materials as replacement for copper and tin compounds for fouling and marine corrosion control. Design/methodology/approach - Green algae, tubeworms in dead powder form and garlic were used as natural anti-fouling components in the paints developed. Electrochemical technique was employed for testing the potential of both tubeworms and garlic in terms of inhibition of steel corrosion in seawater. Marine paint formulations containing each of the three selected natural materials were applied onto PVC and un-primed steel surface, which were immersed in natural seawater for the assessment of their anti-fouling and anti-corrosion properties. The results of visual assessment and seawater analysis were also used for such an evaluation. Findings - Tubeworms act as mixed type inhibitor while garlic affects the potential cathodic process of steel in seawater. Tubeworms-based paint, with 25 per cent in the dry paint film, could protect steel surface from marine corrosion up to 7 months. The paints containing algae and garlic, and the corresponding algae/garlic free paints, resisted slime film formation. Steel and PVC coated surfaces with paint containing algae showed the best anti-fouling potential within the prepared series. Research limitations\implications - The investigation only involved the application of the dead form of green algae and tubeworms as effective pigments in the developed paints. It is recommended that further research should focus on extracting and identifying the active components in each organism against fouling and marine corrosion. Practical implications - The paint formulations developed (containing 25 per cent by weight tubeworms in the paint film) could be used to protect un-primed steel surface against fouling and marine corrosion for a reasonably long duration. Originality/value - The application of one paint formulation on un-primed steel surface for its protection from both fouling and marine corrosion is novel. The electrochemical studies of steel in natural seawater in presence of tubeworms and garlic are original.

Notes: Purpose - To investigate a new approach for the prevention of lignocellulosic composites based on agro-fibres (e.g. sugar-cane bagasse) from the emission of toxic formaldehyde. Design/methodology/approach - Five organic polymer containing nitrogen-urea formaldehyde (UF) adhesive systems were used as bonding agents for bagasse fibres. The environmental performance of the lignocellulosic composites prepared were evaluated in terms of the effect of the organic polymers on the percentage of free formaldehyde in the adhesive system and the adhesion properties (static bending and water resistance properties) of the composite produced, in comparison with that prepared from un-modified UF. The nitrogen content of the polymer and the amount of organic polymers incorporated in the adhesive system were optimised using the 3D response surface methodology and the multi-linear regression technique. Findings - All investigated organic polymers (crude PAM-g-starch, PAM-g-starch, PAM, CE-starch and Cm-starch) were found to enhance the performance of the UF-adhesive for producing environmentally friendly bagasse-composite, whereas the reduction of free-HCHO in UF-adhesive systems ranges from 26 to 100 percent. The performance of the composite produced exceeded the ANSI requirements for Grade H-3 particle-board. Research limitations/implications - Despite the success in improving the performance (mechanical properties and reduction of free-formaldehyde) of the UF-adhesive and agro-composites, the polymers needed to be incorporated at a high percentage (12-20 percent) resulting in reduced water resistance of the product. Further investigation is needed to resolve this problem. Practical implications - The approach developed provided a simple and practical solution to enhancing the performance of waste agro-fibres and commercial amino adhesive in the production of high performance lignocellulosic composite. Originality/value - The organic polymers UF adhesive systems are novel bonding agents for agro-fibres and could be used in timber mills for production of particle-board and medium density fibre-board.

Notes: Purpose - To evaluate the efficiency of modifying epoxy resin using amine terminated poly(ethylene glycol) benzoate (ATPEGB) for improved toughness and to optimise the results of such a modification. Design/methodology/approach - For effective toughening, various compositions were made by incorporating different concentrations of ATPEGB. The impact and adhesive strengths of the unmodified and modified epoxy networks were characterised. Findings - The modification of epoxy resin using ATPEGB showed significant enhancement of impact and adhesive strengths over the unmodified one. The modification caused a chemical linkage between ATPEGB and resin which led not only to a phase separation but also to ensuring the intrinsically strong chemical bonds across the ATPEGB phase/resin matrix interface, which was the main cause to the improved impact and adhesive strengths. The optimum results were obtained at 12.5?phr (parts per hundred parts of epoxy resin) of modifier. Research limitations/implications - The modifier, ATPEGB, used in the present context was synthesised from poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) of molecular weight 600. Besides, it could be synthesised from PEG of molecular weight 200, 400, 4,000, 20,000 etc. In addition, the efficiency of modification of epoxy resin using these could also be studied. Practical implications - The method developed provided a simple and practical solution to improving the toughness of cured epoxy. Originality/value - The method for enhanced toughness of cured epoxy was novel and could find numerous applications in surface coating and adhesive.

Notes: Purpose - Synthesis and evaluation of new naphthopyran and related compounds as ultraviolet absorbers. Design/methodology/approach - The new naphthopyran and related compounds were prepared using new synthesis methodology which gave new derivatives via positions not accessible by traditional methods. Findings - A new method for the preparations of naphthopyran was developed. The naphthopyran compounds prepared had promising UV absorption/protection capabilities. Practical implications - The new compounds synthesised had unique character enabling them to be used in applications such as UV absorber and sunscreen. Originality/value - New method of synthesis and the possibility of using the naphthopyran derivatives as UV absorber in many applications.