ALBERT

Notes: Abstract Specimen thickness is the main experimental factor controlling the results of illite crystallinity (IC) or crystallite size measurements on sedimentation slides. Different values obtained from thick and thin preparations are due to grain-size gradation effects, which may exclude larger and higher ordered grains from contributing to the diffraction. Orientation effects control the measured peak intensity. The change from poor particle orientation in thick slides to high orientation in very thin slides is marked by an increase in specimen density, diminishing non-basal reflections, and by a strong increase in peak intensity. A plateau with constant peak breadths is observed if thin slides of well ordered, platy illites are used. A similar plateau can be recognized for thick preparations of specimens from less ordered materials, but not from well ordered ones. Therefore, it is suggested that IC is determined on very thin sedimentation slides with a thickness of 0.25 mg/cm2 or less. Ultrasonic and H2O2 treatments enhance the degree of particle orientation by destruction of grain aggregates and organic compounds, leading to smaller peak breadths and higher intensities.

Notes: Abstract Five basalt samples from the Point Sal ophiolite, California, were examined using HRTEM and AEM in order to compare observations with interpretations of XRD patterns and microprobe analyses. XRD data from ethylene-glycol-saturated samples indicate the following percentages of chlorite in mixed-layer chlorite–smectite identified for each specimen: (i) L2036 ± 50%, (ii) L2035 ± 70 and 20%, (iii) 1A-13 ± 70%, (iv) 1B-42 ± 70%, and (v) 1B-55 = 100%. Detailed electron microprobe analyses show that ‘chlorite’analyses with high Si, K, Na and Ca contents are the result of interlayering with smectite-like layers. The Fe/(Fe + Mg) ratios of mixed-layer phyllosilicates from Point Sal samples are influenced by the bulk rock composition, not by the percentage of chlorite nor the structure of the phyllosilicate.Measurements of lattice-fringe images indicate that both smectite and chlorite layers are present in the Point Sal samples in abundances similar to those predicted with XRD techniques and that regular alternation of chlorite and smectite occurs at the unit-cell scale. Both 10- and 14-Å layers were recorded with HRTEM and interpreted to be smectite and chlorite, respectively. Regular alternation of chlorite and smectite (24-Å periodicity) occurs in upper lava samples L2036 and 1A-13, and lower lava sample 1B-42 for as many as seven alternations per crystallite with local layer mistakes. Sample L2035 shows disordered alternation of chlorite and smectite, with juxtaposition of smectite-like layers, suggesting that randomly interlayered chlorite (〈0.5)–smectite exists. Images of lower lava sample 1B-55 show predominantly 14-Å layers. Units of 24 Å tend to cluster in what may otherwise appear to be disordered mixtures, suggesting the existence of a corrensite end-member having thermodynamic significance.

Notes: Abstract White mica crystallinity studies have been carried out on 90 samples of mudrocks, six of spotted slate, and five of accretionary lapilli tuff from the area around the Berwyn Hills, North Wales. Strain was measured for some of the spotted slate and tuff samples. The metamorphic grade increases from southeast to northwest, with values of the Kübler index varying from 0.64 to 0.20Δ2θ. Metamorphic zonal boundaries follow the strike of bedding and cleavage, but crystallinity values increase into stratigraphically younger rocks on the northwest side of the Berwyn Dome. This effect is attributed mainly to a rapid increase in the thickness of synmetamorphic overburden to the northwest, comprising exposed Silurian turbidites and inferred Lower Devonian non-marine sediments. Strain variations have a more local influence on crystallinity, and lateral variations in the contemporary geothermal gradient cannot be ruled out. However, only with unrealistically high gradients would the need for a thick Lower Devonian component to the overburden be removed. This reasoning implies that the metamorphic peak was coeval with the Acadian (late Caledonian) event, rather than with an early diastathermal event.

Notes: Abstract Illite crystallinity (IC) measurements, determination of the proportion of 2M mica-polytypes and organic-matter reflectance measurements establish regional diagenetic/low-grade metamorphic trends for the Taconian and Acadian belts of Gaspé Peninsula.IC varies as a function of many factors besides maximum burial temperature and heating time. Correlation between IC and %2M illite polytypes for the Fortin Group and Temiscouata Formation suggests (i) that the amount of high-grade detrital mica in the samples is low, and (ii) that IC can be used with some confidence as an estimator of regional thermal maturation levels. Correlation of these parameters with available organic reflectance values further supports this assumption. The illites of the Temiscouata and western Fortin groups are mostly phengitic in composition, whereas in the eastern outcrop belt they are more Mg- and Fe-rich (celadonitic), but generally also of lower grade and lower 2M content. The d(060) values for illites measured on the unorientated 〈2-μm fraction of samples fall between 1.502 and 1.503 Å (range: 1.500–1.504 Å), indicating relatively low octahedral occupancy by Mg and Fe (between one-fifth and one-third of the available spaces). Pyrophyllite and paragonite were not detected. Chlorites are Fe-rich and ripidolitic.The IC map for the Acadian belt of the peninsula displays general congruence between IC contours (2200 sample points) and structural trends for the 27,000-km2 area. The highest grades (anchimetamorphic) are associated with the oldest rocks (Honorat and Matapedia groups) exposed in the cores of major anticlines. Anchimetamorphic grades associated with the western outcrop belt of the Lower Devonian Fortin Group require 7–8 km of subsidence to accommodate sufficient thickness of overlying younger rocks (on top of 4–5 km of Fortin Group deep-water clastics) to explain the grades in terms of burial metamorphism assuming a geothermal gradient of 30° C km−1. The lowest-grade diagenetic rocks occupy a large area in the northeastern part of the peninsula, smaller areas in the northwestern part of the Acadian belt, in the centre of Chaleurs Bay synclinorium, and in the Ordovician Mictaw Group. The contact between the Taconian and Acadian belt is marked by a distinct maturation discontinuity. The Grand Pabos fault juxtaposes rocks of contrasting maturation levels (Matapedia Group against Fortin Group) in the west, but shows no maturation offset further east in the Honorat Group. The fault zone limiting the Fortin Group in the north is also associated with a major IC jump.

Notes: Abstract The assemblage muscovite-quartz-staurolite-aluminium silicate-biotite-garnet-chlorite with H2O (SABGC assemblage) is invariant in the K2O-FeO-MgO-Al2O3-SiO2-H2O (KFMASH) system. Such five-phase AFM assemblages should be absent in nature, but reported occurrences from at least ten localities suggest that either the assemblage internally controls μH2O or non-KFMASH components stabilize one or more of the phases.Least-squares regression analysis of minerals from South Royalton and Gassetts, Vermont, USA, demonstrates that subsets of the minerals in single SABGC assemblages from both localities are related by balanced reactions involving water. These results are consistent with the interpretation that the subassemblages fixed μH2O at an arbitrary, specified pressure and temperature. Balanced dehydration reactions also may be written between minerals in the SABGC assemblages and four-phase assemblages from the same outcrops interpreted to have equilibrated at the same pressures and temperatures as the five-phase assemblages. These results suggest that different specimens from the same outcrops equilibrated at different values of μH2O, supporting the conclusion that μH2O was not controlled externally. We could not demonstrate internal control of fo2 using measured mineral compositions because oxygen balance occurred in all reactions derived by regression.Regression analysis of published mineral compositions from New Mexico failed to identify balanced reactions involving water or oxygen either among the phases in a single SABGC assemblage or between SABGC and nearby four-phase assemblages. These results demonstrate that neither μH2O nor fo2 were fixed by the SABGC assemblages at these localities, and permit the interpretations that the assemblages were stabilized by the non-KFMASH components Na or Ca and that μH2O and fo2 were controlled externally.

Notes: Abstract Albite porphyroblasts are widely distributed in pelitic and semi-pelitic schists of the Fleur de Lys Supergroup, western Newfoundland. Textures and mineral assemblages indicate that albite grew during nearly isothermal decompression from P-T conditions of about 500° C, 9 kbar, to conditions of 550° C, 6.5 kbar. Three compositional varieties of albite-bearing schists, here termed PMAQ (paragonite-muscovite-albite-quartz), MMAQ (microcline-muscovite-albite-quartz), and PMMQ (paragonite-muscovite-margarite-quartz), can be distinguished on the basis of pre-porphyroblast mineral assemblages. Analysis of these assemblages in terms of the composition of the coexisting fluid [log a(Na+/H+) versus log a(K+/H+)] suggests that, as pressure and temperature changed, the stability field of albite expanded at the expense of coexisting matrix phyllosilicates. This promoted growth of albite on pre-existing or newly formed nuclei. Late oligoclase in PMAQ and PMMQ samples is associated with replacement of matrix garnet by plagioclase + mica ° Chlorite, particularly in strongly sheared samples.

Notes: Abstract Spinel-quartz-cordierite and spinel-quartz are found as relic prograde assemblages in Fe-rich granulites from the Araku area, Eastern Ghats belt, India. Subsequent reactions produced orthopyroxene + sillimanite in the former association and garnet + sillimanite in the latter. The first reaction is univariant in the FMAS system, but is trivariant in the present case because of the presence of Zn and Fe3+ in spinel. The second reaction also has high variance because of Zn and Fe3+, but also because of the presence of Ca in garnet. Thermobarometry shows that the metamorphic conditions were approximately 950° C and 8.5 kbar and the fo2 was near the NNO buffer. In Fe-rich bulk compositions and low-P-high-T conditions of metamorphism, two of the univariant reactions around the invariant point [Sa], namely (Sa, Hy) and (Sa, Cd), change topology due to reverse partitioning of Fe-Mg between coexisting garnet and spinel. An alternative partial petrogenetic grid in the system FMAS is constructed for such conditions and is applied satisfactorily to several sapphirine-free spinel granulites. It is shown that bulk composition (XFe and Zn) exerts greater control on the stability of spinel + quartz than fo2. The effect of the presence of Zn and Fe3+ in spinel on the proposed grid is evaluated. Reaction textures in the Araku spinel granulites can be explained from the petrogenetic grid as due to near-isobaric cooling.

Notes: The impure marbles of the internal Sesia-Lanzo Zone underwent a multi-stage metamorphic evolution of Alpine age and retain early-Alpine eclogitic assemblages, partially recrystallized under blueschist to greenschist facies conditions. These high-P assemblages consist of carbonates, phengite, quartz, omphacite, grossular-rich (locally spessartinic) garnet, zoisite and Al-rich titanite. Retrogressive stages are characterized by the growth of glaucophane, paragonite, phlogopite, tremolite and albite. Halogen-rich biotite and amphibole are also present. P-T estimates of the early-Alpine metamophism have been calculated from these unique high-P assemblages, in order to test the applicability of some calibrations to impure carbonate systems. In particular, some Gt-Cpx calibrations and the phengite geobarometer give results (T= 575 ± 45° C at 15 kbar for the eclogitic climax and T≤ 500° C at PH2O ≤ 9 kbar for early-Alpine retrogressive stages) which are within the range obtained from the surrounding lithologies.Phase relationships in P-T-XCO2 space indicate that mineral assemblages in the impure marbles coexisted with H2O-rich fluids (XCO2 〈0.03) during their entire Alpine evolution.

Notes: Petrographical and mineral chemical data are given for the eclogites which occur in the garnet-kyanite micaschists of the Penninic Dora-Maira Massif between Brossasco, Isasca and Martiniana (Italian Western Alps) and for a sodic whiteschist associated with the pyrope-coesite whiteschists of Martiniana. The Brossasco-Isasca (BI) eclogites are fine grained, foliated and often mica-rich rocks with a strong preferred orientation of omphacite crystals and white micas. Porphyroblasts of hornblende are common in some varieties, whilst zoisite and kyanite occur occasionally in pale green varieties associated with leucocratic layers with quartz, jadeite and garnet. These features differentiate the BI eclogites from the eclogites that occur in other continental units of the Western Alps, which all belong to type C. Garnet, sodic pyroxene and glaucophane are the major minerals in the sodic whiteschist.Sodic pyroxene in the eclogites is an omphacite often close to Jd50Di50, with very little acmite and virtually no AlIV, and impure jadeite in the leucocratic layers and in the sodic whiteschist. Garnet is almandine with 20–30 mol. % for each of the pyrope and grossular components in the eclogites and a pyrope-rich variety in the sodic whiteschist. White mica is a variably substituted phengite, and paragonite apparently only occurs as a replacement product of kyanite. Amphibole is hornblende in the eclogites, but the most magnesian glaucophane yet described in the sodic whiteschist. Quartz pseudomorphs of coesite were found occasionally in a few pyroxenes and garnets.The P-T conditions during the VHP event are constrained in the eclogites by reactions which define a field ranging from 27–28 kbar to 35 kbar and from 680 to 750° C. These temperatures are consistent with the results of garnet-pyroxene and garnet-phengite geothermometry which suggest that the eclogites may have equilibrated at around 700° C. In the sodic whiteschist pressures ranging from 29 to 35 kbar can be deduced from the stability of the jadeite-pyrope garnet-glaucophane compatibility. As in the eclogites water activity must have been low. Such conditions are close to the P-T values estimated for the early Alpine recrystallization of the pyrope-coesite rock and, like petrographical and mineralogical features, set aside the BI eclogites from the other eclogites of the Western Alps, instead indicating a close similarity to some of the eclogite bodies occurring in the Adula nappe of the Central Alps. An important corollary is that glaucophane stability, at least in Na- and Mg-rich compositions and under very high pressures, may extend up to 700° C, in agreement with the HT stability limit suggested by experimental studies.

Notes: The retrograde P-T trajectory of the eclogitic Fe-Ti-gabbros from the Ligurian Alps is constrained by the appearance of mineral parageneses post-dating the Na-clinopyroxene + garnet eclogitic assemblage and indicating the following sequence of metamorphic events: (1) amphibolitic stage— edenite/katophorite + plagioclase (An33–43) + oxides in symplectitic aggregates; (2) glaucophanic stage— a porphyroblastic glaucophanic amphibole has overgrown the symplectite, winchite also occurs as thin rims around glaucophane and both amphiboles are, sometimes, armoured by atoll garnets; (3) albite-amphibolite stage—barroisite/katophorite + albite + epidote + oxides ± chlorite overprint the glaucophanic stage minerals; (4) greenschist stage—represented by actinolite + albite + epidote + oxide paragenesis.The metamorphic evolution is complex and the decompression path, on a P–T diagram, is significantly different from those defined in the literature for the Voltri eclogites. The main features inferred from the P–T path are the following: (1) the pressure climax does not match the thermal climax, the maximum temperature conditions are in fact achieved during the early stage of uplift; (2) a decrease in temperature, suggested by the appearance of glaucophane after the amphibolitic symplectite; (3) successive uplift, probably accompanied by an increase in temperature. The complexity of the P-T path drawn for the Voltri eclogites can be explained with a mechanism of successive underthrusts propagating from the innermost to the outermost sector of the Ligurian Alps.

Notes: Abstract Geological relationships and geochronological data suggest that in Miocene time the metamorphic core of the central Himalayan orogen was a wedge-shaped body bounded below by the N-dipping Main Central thrust system and above the N-dipping South Tibetan detachment system. We infer that synchronous movement on these fault systems expelled the metamorphic core southward toward the Indian foreland, thereby moderating the extreme topographic gradient at the southern margin of the Tibetan Plateau. Reaction textures, thermobarometric data and thermodynamic modelling of pelitic schists and gneisses from the Nyalam transect in southern Tibet (28°N, 86°E) imply that gravitational collapse of the orogen produced a complex thermal structure in the metamorphic core. Amphibolite facies metamorphism and anatexis at temperatures of 950 K and depths of at least 30 km accompanied the early stages of displacement on the Main Central thrust system. Our findings suggest that the late metamorphic history of these rocks was characterized by high-T decompression associated with roughly 15 km of unroofing by movement on the South Tibetan detachment system. In the middle of the metamorphic core, roughly 7–8 km below the basal detachment of the South Tibetan system, the decompression was essentially isothermal. Near the base of the metamorphic core, roughly 4–6 km above the Main Central thrust, the decompression was accompanied by about 150 K of cooling. We attribute the disparity between the P–T paths of these two structural levels to cooling of the lower part of the metamorphic core as a consequence of continued (and probably accelerated) underthrusting of cooler rocks in the footwall of the Main Central thrust at the same time as movement on the South Tibetan detachment system.

Notes: Abstract Metre-scale amphibolite boudins in the Cheyenne Belt of south-eastern Wyoming are cut and deformed by shear zones which preserve a full strain transition across 7 cm, from relatively undeformed amphibolite with a relict igneous texture to mylonitic amphibolite with an L-S tectonic fabric. The strain transition is marked by the progressive rotation of amphibole + plagioclase aggregates into parallelism with the shear-zone boundary. An increase in strain magnitude is indicated by development of the tectonic fabric and progressive reduction of amphibole and plagioclase grain size as a result of cataclasis. Bulk chemistry of five samples across a single strain transition shows no significant or systematic variation in major element chemistry except for a minor loss of SiO2, which indicates that the shear zone was a system essentially closed to non-volatile components during metamorphism and deformation. Amphibolites throughout the shear zone consist of amphibole and plagioclase with only minor amounts of quartz, chlorite, epidote, titanite and ilmenite. Within the relatively undeformed amphibolite, amphibole and plagioclase have wide compositional ranges in single thin sections. Amphibole compositions vary from actinolitic hornblende to magnesio-hornblende with increases in Al, Fe, Na and K contents and decreases in Si and Mg that can be modelled as progress along tschermakite, edenite and FeMg-1 exchange vectors from tremolite. Plagioclase ranges from An60 in cores to An30 within grain-boundary domains. With increasing strain magnitude, local variation of amphibole composition decreases as amphibole becomes predominantly magnesio-hornblende. Plagioclase composition range also decreases, although grain-boundary domains still have higher albite content. These petrological data indicate that shear-zone metamorphism was controlled by the magnitude of strain during synmetamorphic deformation. SEM and microprobe imaging indicate that chemical reactions occurred by a dissolution and reprecipitation process during or after cataclastic deformation. This suggests that grain-boundary formation was an important process in the petrological evolution of the shear zone, possibly by providing zones for fluid ingress to facilitate metamorphic reactions. These results highlight the necessity for conducting detailed microstructural evaluation of rocks in order to interpret petrological, isotopic and geochronological data.

Notes: Abstract Ten metamorphic domains can be distinguished in China, comprising four cratonic, three intracratonic and three intercratonic domains. Each domain contains one or more metamorphic belts, each of which, in turn, contains a characteristic metamorphic facies or facies series that was formed during a distinct metamorphic epoch.The metamorphic domains reflect the tectonic domains and tectonic evolution of China. Ancient continental nucleii in the North China and Tarim–Alxa cratons were probably unified with the Yangtze craton during the Early Proterozoic to form the China Platform. Widespread greenschist facies metamorphism, during the Middle and Late Proterozoic, accompanied by glaucophane–greenschist facies metamorphism, represents a rifting and closure event in the China Platform; a second rifting and closure event in the China Platform occurred during the Caledonian. The China and Siberian platforms were closed during the Hercynian to form the Eurasian Continent. Closure of the ancient Tethys Ocean occurred in the Indosinian epoch, and subduction and collision within Xizang (Tibet) and Taiwan occurred during Mesozoic–Cenozoic time.The distribution in time of types of metamorphism in China suggests cyclical changes of metamorphism known as the Archaean, Proterozoic and Phanerozoic megacycles. Each megacycle since the Archaean consists of a change from progressive, low- to intermediate-grade metamorphism to lower grade, greenschist metamorphism that was superimposed on a general trend in which high-grade metamorphism became progressively less important with time. The change in metamorphic megacycles shows a general secular decrease in regional heat supply during metamorphism punctuated by episodic high-grade, progressive metamorphism within orogenic belts.

Notes: Abstract The Shangdan fault in the Qinling Orogenic Belt of China is an important boundary between the Caledonian North Qinling Fold Belt and the Hercynian South Qinling Fold Belt. In the Danfeng area, the fault zone strikes WNW–ESE and comprises four strongly deformed zones and three weakly deformed domains parallel to each other. The fault zone has a complex history of multiple deformation and each domain has a different tectonic style that was formed at different stages of the deformation.The rocks exposed in the weakly deformed domains belong to the Qinling, Danfeng and Liuling Groups. In this paper, the mineral chemistry and mineral assemblages are used to infer the metamorphic conditions and the P–T paths of these units. The metamorphic units in and near the fault zone have different metamorphic conditions and histories that are correlated with the tectonic evolution of the fault zone. Caledonian–Hercynian uplift and southward thrusting of the Proterozoic Qinling Group, over the Danfeng and the Liuling Groups, produced the main metamorphic and tectonic features of the fault zone. Folding of both the Liuling Group and the thrust faults during the Hercynian–Indosinian was accompanied by northward thrusting.

Notes: Abstract Discontinuous ultramylonite zones cut Proterozoic granulite facies gneisses in MacRobertson Land, east Antarctica, and preserve evidence of ductile non-coaxial flow and reverse sense of shear. Cross-cutting relationships indicate that ultramylonite deformation involved overthrusting to the east, but progressively rotated to involve overthrusting to the north; rotation of the principal compressive stress axes is inferred. Extensive pseudotachylite developed during ultramylonitization, the history of individual ultramylonite zones having involved a single episode of pseudotachylite generation. Neoblastic sillimanite indicates ultramylonitization occurred at 〉520° C. On the basis of inferred recrystallized granulite facies mineral assemblages ultramylonitization occurred at 〉700° C, and ≤7.3 ± 0.5 kbar, at aH2O± 0.3 and low aCO2. Comparison of these values with those suggested by metamorphic assemblages in rocks unaffected by mylonitization indicates that the Rayner Complex experienced a late increase in pressure of 1–2 kbar during ultramylonitization. The P-T-aH2O conditions of the ultramylonite zones are inferred to have been close to the solidus for minimum melting, pseudotachylite generation having involved a limited pressure drop during brittle fracturing at high strain rates. Most of the pseudotachylite veins are undeformed; the mechanism(s) of fracturing and melting must have caused strain hardening in rocks surrounding the ultramylonite, further strain having been mostly accommodated by a new or subsidiary shear zone. Renewed stress at reduced strain rates, or renewed stress in zones in which the proportion of pseudotachylite was significantly higher, could have led to the rare occurrences of deformed pseudotachylite. The preservation of fine-grained pseudotachylite is dependent on it remaining dry.

Notes: Abstract C-O-H fluid produced by the equilibration of H2O and excess graphite must maintain the atomic H/O ratio of water, 2:1. This constraint implies that all thermodynamic properties of the fluid are uniquely determined at isobaric-isothermal conditions. The O2, H2O and CO2 fugacities (fo2, fH2O and fCO2) of such fluids have been estimated from equations of state and fit as a function of pressure and temperature. These fugacities can be taken as characteristic for graphitic metamorphic systems in which the dominant fluid source is dehydration, e.g. pelitic lithologies. Because there are no compositional degrees of freedom for graphite-saturated fluids produced entirely by dehydration, the variance of the dehydration process is not increased in comparison with that in non-graphitic systems. Thus, compositional ‘buffering’of C-O-H fluids by dehydration equilibria, a common petrological model, requires that redox reactions, decarbonation reactions or external, H/O ± 2, fluid sources perturb the evolution of the metamorphic system. Such perturbations are not likely to be significant in metapelitic environments, but their tendency will be to increase the fO2 of the fluid phase. At high metamorphic grades, pyrite desulphidation reactions may cause a substantial reduction of fH2O and slight increases in fO2 and fCO2 relative to sulphur-free fluid. At low metamorphic grade, sulphur solubility in H/O ± 2 fluids is so low that pyrite decomposition must occur by sulphur-conserving reactions that cause iron depletion in silicates, a common feature of sulphidic pelites. With increasing temperature and sulphur solubility, pyrite desulphidation may be driven by dehydration reactions or infiltration of H2O-rich fluids. The absence of magnetite and the assemblages carbonate + aluminosilicate or pyrite + pyrrhotite + ilmenite from most graphitic metapelites is consistent with an H/O = 2 model for GCOH(S) fluid. For graphitic rocks in which such a model is inapplicable, a phase diagram variable that defines the H/O ratio of GCOH(S) fluid is more useful than the conventional fO2 variable.

Notes: Abstract Muscovite-poor pelitic schists in the wallrocks of the Proterozoic Annex sulphide deposit, near Prieska, South Africa, contain peak metamorphic assemblages including Crd + Bt + Sil, St + Sil + Bt, Crd + St + Bt and, rarely, Ky + St ° Crd. All rocks include oligoclase, quartz and commonly Fe–Mn garnet, with or without muscovite. Peak assemblages, assigned to M2 regional metamorphism in the Gordonia Belt (Namaqua Province), are syn- to post-kinematic with respect to the main S2 fabric although larger staurolite grains contain S1 inclusion trails. Garnet–biotite thermometry, utilizing corrections for Fe3+, Mn, AlVI and Ti, yields peak temperatures of 571–624°C at pressures of 4.5–6.0 kbar. Consideration of the sympathetic variation of XMn in garnet with XMg in biotite and the preserved zoning patterns in prograde garnets, together with the inferred prograde transition from kyanite to sillimanite, indicates that heating occurred during mild decompression to the M2 metamorphic peak. Sillimanite and cordierite grew last in the prograde sequence, possibly related to a pulse of thermal metamorphism (M3) that is found along the margin of the Keimoes Suite batholith to the north.Retrograde assemblages, including Ms + Ky + Chl + Qtz (after Crd + Bt), Ky + Ms (after Sil) and Chl + Ms (after St) indicate a period of isobaric cooling (M4a) terminated by rehydration in the kyanite stability field at about 500°C.The size difference between prograde (1–2-mm) and retrograde (0.05–0.1-mm) mineral grains indicates substantial undercooling below equilibrium positions of relevant retrograde reactions prior to rehydration, and explains why cordierite that grew during M2 is almost completely destroyed. Post-M4a regrowth of staurolite and garnet (M4b) is spatially linked to sites of M4a rehydration. It reached temperatures of 510–530°C, remaining within the stability field of kyanite.A best fit of the observed textural history to the Namaqua orogenic cycle involves collision and heating (M2/D2) followed by granite intrusion (M3), rifting (M4a) and renewed heating due to crustal loading during volcanism (M4b). The P–T path for the Annex region is consistent with those derived from elsewhere in the Gordonia Belt and, with modification, to that published already for the nearby Prieska Copper Mines.

Notes: Abstract Portions of three Proterozoic tectonostratigraphic sequences are exposed in the Cimarron Mountains of New Mexico. The Cimarron River tectonic unit has affinities to a convergent margin plutonic/volcanic complex. Igneous hornblende from a quartz diorite stock records an emplacement pressure of 2–2.6 kbar. Rocks within this unit were subsequently deformed during a greenschist facies regional metamorphism at 4–5 kbar and 330 ± 50° C.The Tolby Meadow tectonic unit consists of quartzite and schist. Mineral assemblages are indicative of regional metamorphism at pressures near 4 kbar and temperatures of 520 ± 20° C. A low-angle ductile shear zone separates this succession from gneisses of the structurally underlying Eagle Nest tectonic unit. Gneissic granite yields hornblende pressures of 6–8 kbar. Pelitic gneiss records regional metamorphic conditions of 6–7 kbar and 705 ± 15° C, overprinted by retrogression at 4 kbar and 530 ± 10° C. Comparison of metamorphic and retrograde conditions indicates a P–T path dominated by decompression and cooling. The low-angle ductile shear zone represents an extensional structure which was active during metamorphism. This extension juxtaposed the Tolby Meadow and Eagle Nest units at 4 kbar and 520° C. Both units were later overprinted by folding and low-grade metamorphism, and then were emplaced against the Cimarron River tectonic unit by right-slip movement along the steeply dipping Fowler Pass shear zone.An argon isotope-correlation age obtained from igneous hornblende dates plutonism in the Cimarron River unit at 1678 Ma. Muscovite associated with the greenschist facies metamorphic overprint yields a 40 Ar/39 Ar plateau age of 1350 Ma. By contrast, rocks within the Tolby Meadow and Eagle Nest units yield significantly younger argon cooling ages. Hornblende isotope-correlation ages of 1394–1398 Ma are interpreted to date cooling during middle Proterozoic extension. Muscovite plateau ages of 1267–1257 Ma appear to date cooling from the low-grade metamorphic overprint. The latest ductile movement along the Fowler Pass shear zone post-dated these cooling ages. Argon released from muscovites of the Eagle Nest/Tolby Meadow composite unit, at low experimental temperatures, yields apparent ages of c. 1100 Ma. Similar ages are not obtained north-east of the Fowler Pass shear zone, suggesting movement more recently than 1100 Ma.

Notes: Abstract Regional metamorphism in central Inner Mongolia has occurred during four different periods: the middle Proterozoic, the early Palaeozoic, the middle Palaeozoic and the late Palaeozoic tectonic cycles. The middle Proterozoic and late Palaeozoic metamorphic events are associated with rifting and are characterized by low-pressure facies series. The early Palaeozoic metamorphism occurred in two stages: (1) subduction zone metamorphism resulted in paired metamorphic belts in the Ondor Sum ophiolite and Bainaimiao island arc complex; and (2) orogenic metamorphism occurred during the collision of an island arc with the continent. Two types of middle Palaeozoic metamorphism are represented: (1) subduction zone metamorphism, which affected the melange; and (2) orogenic metamorphism that resulted from continent–continent collision.

Notes: Abstract The metamorphic history and tectonic evolution of the Qinling Complex is divided into formation and modification stages. During the Proterozoic formation stage, three deformational sequences are recognized. Andalusite–muscovite, sillimanite–muscovite and sillimanite–K-feldspar zones of amphibolite facies regional metamorphism are earlier than, or synchronous with the first or second phase of folding. Ductile shear zones were formed and Caledonian granites were emplaced during the modification stage. The granites superimposed contact aureoles (garnet–K-feldspar zone) on the regional metamorphic fabric.Metamorphic reactions, P–T conditions of metamorphism and P–T–t paths were estimated by analysis of mineral textures and standard thermobarometric techniques. The P–T–t path of the Proterozoic tectonometamorphic cycle shows prominent clockwise decompression. The P–T–t path of the Caledonian tectonometamorphic cycle is characterized by an early rise of pressure and temperature, followed by isothermal decompression (rapid uplift) and finally with isobaric cooling.The P–T–t paths of the two tectonometamorphic cycles reflect two major stages of collision and uplift in the evolution of the Qinling orogenic belt during the Proterozoic and Caledonian–Hercynian periods, respectively.

Notes: Abstract Eclogites are distributed for more than 500 km along a major tectonic boundary between the Sino-Korean and Yangtze cratons in central and eastern China. These eclogites usually have high-P assemblages including omphacite + kyanite and/or coesite (or its pseudomorph), and form a high-P eclogite terrane. They occur as isolated lenses or blocks 10 cm to 300 m long in gneisses (Type I), serpentinized garnet peridotites (Type II) and marbles (Type III). Type I eclogites were formed by prograde metamorphism, and their primary metamorphic mineral assemblage consists mainly of garnet [pyrope (Prp) = 15–40 mol%], omphacite [jadeite (Jd) = 34–64 mol%], pargasitic amphibole, kyanite, phengitic muscovite, zoisite, an SiO2 phase, apatite, rutile and zircon. Type II eclogites characteristically contain no SiO2 phase, and are divided into prograde eclogites and mantle-derived eclogites. The prograde eclogites of Type II are petrographically similar to Type I eclogites. The mantle-derived eclogites have high MgO/(FeO + Fe2O3) and Cr2O3 compositions in bulk rock and minerals, and consist mainly of pyrope-rich garnet (Prp = 48–60 mol%), sodic augite (Jd = 10–27 mol%) and rutile. Type III eclogites have an unusual mineral assemblage of grossular-rich (Grs = 57 mol%) garnet + omphacite (Jd = 30–34 mol%) + pargasite + rutile.Pargasitic and taramitic amphiboles, calcic plagioclase (An68), epidote, zoisite, K-feldspar and paragonite occur as inclusions in garnet and omphacite in the prograde eclogites. This suggests that the prograde eclogites were formed by recrystallization of epidote amphibolite and/or amphibolite facies rocks with near-isothermal compression reflecting crustal thickening during continent–continent collision of late Proterozoic age. Equilibrium conditions of the prograde eclogites range from P 〉 26 kbar and T= 500–750°C in the western part to P 〉 28 kbar and T= 810–880°C in the eastern part of the high-P eclogite terrane. The prograde eclogites in the eastern part are considered to have been derived from a deeper position than those in the western part. Subsequent reactions, manifested by (1) narrow rims of sodic plagioclase or paragonite on kyanite and (2) symplectites between omphacite and quartz are interpreted as an effect of near-isothermal decompression during the retrograde stage. The conditions at which symplectites re-equilibrated tend to increase from west (P 〈 10 kbar and T 〈 580°C) to east (P 〉 9 kbar and T 〉 680°C). Equilibrium temperatures of Type II mantle-derived eclogites and Type III eclogite are 730–750°C and 680°C, respectively.

Notes: Abstract Fluid evolution paths in the COHN system can be calculated for metamorphic rocks if there are relevant data regarding the mineral assemblages present, and regarding the oxidation and nitrodation states throughout the entire P-T loop. The compositions of fluid inclusions observed in granulitic rocks from Rogaland (south-west Norway) are compared with theoretical fluid compositions and molar volumes. The fluid parameters are calculated using a P-T path based on mineral assemblages, which are represented by rocks within the pigeonite-in isograd and by rocks near the orthopyroxene-in isograd surrounding an intrusive anorthosite massif. The oxygen and nitrogen fugacities are assumed to be buffered by the coexisting Fe-Ti oxides and Cr-carlsbergite, respectively. Many features of the natural fluid inclusions, including (1) the occurrence of CO2-N2-rich graphite-absent fluid inclusions near peak M2 metamorphic conditions (927° C and 400 MPa), (2) the non-existence of intermediate ternary CO2-CH4-N2 compositions and (3) the low-molar-volume CO2-rich fluid inclusions (36–42 cm3 mol−1), are reproduced in the calculated fluid system. The observed CO2-CH4-rich inclusions with minor N2 (5 mol%) should also include a large proportion of H2O according to the calculations. The absence of H2O from these natural high-molar-volume CO2-CH4-rich inclusions and the occurrence of natural CH4-N2-rich inclusions are both assumed to result from preferential leakage of H2O. This has been previously experimentally demonstrated for H2O-CO2-rich fluid inclusions, and has also been theoretically predicted. Fluid-deficient conditions may explain the relatively high molar volumes, but cannot be used to explain the occurrence of CH4-N2-rich inclusions and the absence of H2O.

Notes: Abstract Declining temperatures during decay of a hydrothermal system, or during uplift and erosion, tend to result in veins involving progressive hydration reactions, e.g. veins with laumontite cutting prehnitepumpellyite facies rocks, and stilbite veins cutting laumontite veins.In contrast, examples are described of analcime replacement of heulandite along fractures in heulanditized vitric tuff, of replacement of analcime by albite along fractures in quartz-analcime rock, of joint-controlled replacement of heulandite in tuff by laumontite + quartz + (Na, K)-feldspars, of replacement of laumontite by prehnite + quartz along fractures in alumontitized vitric tuff, and of laumontitebearing feldspathic sandstones cut by vein assemblages of quartz and prehnite ° Calcite. The vein mineral assemblage, sometimes with pumpellyite and/or epidote in the prehnite-bearing veins, tends to spread as a zone of dehydration into the adjacent country rock. Except perhaps for albite replacement of analcime, and for laumontite replacement of heulandite, these open-system reactions involve cation activity ratios in the fluid. All involve dehydration. They are favoured by an increase in temperature, and except under certain situations where P-T equilibrium curves have negative slopes, are favoured by a fall in PH2O. Evidence indicates that in at least some cases the triggering mechanism was a drop in PH2O; this may be a widespread phenomenon associated with brittle fracture in the seismogenic upper crust. This may cause fluid pressure to drop from values approaching lithostatic to nearer hydrostatic, and equilibrium may be displaced to yield a less hydrous assemblage that appears as a dehydration vein and vein verge. The dehydration vein assemblage may be diagnostic of a higher grade mineral facies and adds to the mineral complexity attributable to varying permeabilities and fluid pressures in upper crustal strata. Mineral facies are likely to be more uniformly distributed in higher grade rocks from below the brittle-ductile transition zone.Reactions involving complex solid solutions are inappropriate as facies boundaries.

Notes: Abstract Mg–Fe carpholite is widespread in the Diahot region of New Caledonia in highly aluminous schists and as veins in what was originally a clay-rich hydrothermal alteration envelope about massive suphide deposits. These carpholites have Fe/(Fe + Mg) ratios of 0.03–0.65 and no significant Mn component. Mg-carpholite + quartz occur in assemblages with chlorite or pyrophyllite, pyrophyllite + kaolinite and pyrophyllite + diaspore. Temperatures of 230–320° C and minimum pressures of 7 kbar are indicated for the Mg–Fe carpholite-bearing rocks. The regional distribution of aragonite and Mg–Fe carpholite parallel to a major zone of dominantly transcurrent movement and oblique to the trend of the subduction complex indicates the high-P/low-T schists owe their rapid uplift and preservation to the vertical component of the transcurrent faulting.

Notes: Abstract A metasomatic diopside rock occurs at the top of the dolomitic Connemara Marble Formation of western Ireland and contains titanite and K-feldspar in addition to around 90% diopside (XMg= 0.90–0.97). U–Pb isotopic measurements on this mineral assemblage show that the titanite is both unusually uranium-rich and isotopically concordant, with the result that a precise U–Pb age of 478 ± 2.5 Ma can be determined. The age is identical within error to a less precise Rb–Sr age of diopside–K-feldspar of 483 ± 6 Ma. Petrological evidence indicates that the assemblage crystallized at c. 620° C close to or below the closure temperature of titanite. The age thus provides a precise estimate of the time of metamorphism; this age is 11 ± 3 Ma younger than the 490 Ma age for nearby gabbroic plutons which has previously been used to constrain the peak metamorphic age. This difference accords well with geological evidence that the gabbros were emplaced prior to the metamorphic peak. Analysis of minerals with high closure temperature from assemblages whose crystallization is unambiguously associated with a specific episode of fluid infiltration at the peak of metamorphism provides the basis for a new approach to dating metamorphism. The success of this approach is demonstrated by the results from Connemara.

Notes: Abstract Eclogites with a wide range in bulk composition are present in the Münchberg Massif, part of the Variscan basement of the Bohemian Massif in north-east Bavaria. New analyses of the primary phases garnet, omphacite, phengite and amphibole, as well as the secondary phases clinopyroxene II, various amphiboles, biotite/phlogopite, plagioclase, margarite, paragonite, prehnite and pumpellyite, reveal a complex uplift history. New discoveries were made of samples with very jadeite-rich primary omphacite as well as a secondary omphacite in a symplectite with albite. Various geothermobarometric techniques, together with thermodynamic databases (incorporating separately determined activity–composition values) and experimental data have clustered the minimum conditions for the primary assemblages to the P–T range 650 ± 60° C, 14.3 ± 1 kbar. However, jadeite (in omphacite)–kyanite–paragonite (in phengite) and zoisite–grossular (in garnet)–kyanite–quartz relationships suggests pressures of 25–28 kbar at the same temperatures. The fact that the secondary omphacite–plagioclase assemblage yields pressures within a few hundred bars of the minimum pressures for the plagioclase-free assemblages strongly suggests that the minimum values are serious underestimates.Zoning, inclusion suites and breakdown reactions of primary phases, in addition to new minerals formed during uplift, define a polyphase metamorphic evolution which, from geochronological evidence, occurred solely within the Variscan cycle. The complex breakdown in other Bohemian Massif eclogites and the distinct variation in their temperatures during uplift suggest a multi-stage thrusting model for the regional evolution of the eclogites. Such an evolution has significance with respect to incorporation of mantle slices into crustal sequences and fluid derivation from successively subducted units, possibly driving the breakdown reactions.

Notes: Abstract At Kottavattam, southern Kerala (India), late Proterozoic homogeneous leptynitic garnet–biotite gneisses of granitic composition have been transformed on a decimetric scale into coarse-grained massive charnockite sensu stricto along a set of conjugate fractures transecting the gneissic foliation. Charnockitization post-dates the polyphase deformation, regional high-grade metamorphism and anatexis, and evidently occurred at a late stage of the Pan-African tectonothermal history. Geothermobarometric and fluid inclusion data document textural and chemical equilibration of the gneiss and charnockite assemblages at similar Plith–T conditions (650–700°C, 5–6 kbar) in the presence of carbonic fluids internally buffered by reaction with graphite and opaque mineral phases (XCO2= 0.7–0.6; XH2O= 0.2–0.3; XN2= 0.1; log fO2= -17.5).Mineralogical zonation indicates that charnockitization of the leptynitic gneiss involved first the breakdown of biotite and oxidation of graphite in narrow, outward-migrating transition zones adjacent to the gneiss, followed by the breakdown of garnet and the neoblastesis of hypersthene in the central charnockite zone. Compared to the host gneiss, the charnockite shows higher concentrations of K, Na, Sr, Ba and Zn and lower concentrations of Mg, Fe, Ti, V, Y, Zr and the HREE, with a complementary pattern in the narrow transition zones of biotite breakdown. The Plith–T–XH2O data and chemical zonation patterns indicate charnockitization through subsolidus-dehydration reaction in an open system. Subsequent residence of the carbonic fluids in the charnockite resulted in low-grade alteration causing modification of the syn-charnockitic elemental distribution patterns and the properties of entrapped fluids. We favour an internally controlled process of arrested charnockitization in which, during near-isothermal uplift, the release of carbonic fluids from decrepitating inclusions in the host gneiss into simultaneously developing fracture zones led to a change in the fluid regime from ‘fluid-absent’in the gneiss to ‘fluid-present’in the fracture zones and to the development of an initial fluid-pressure gradient, triggering the dehydration reaction.

Notes: Abstract Large calcite veins and pods in the Proterozoic Corella Formation of the Mount Isa Inlier provide evidence for kilometre-scale fluid transport during amphibolite facies metamorphism. These 10- to 100-m-scale podiform veins and their surrounding alteration zones have similar oxygen and carbon isotopic ratios throughout the 200 × 10-km Mary Kathleen Fold Belt, despite the isotopic heterogeneity of the surrounding wallrocks. The fluids that formed the pods and veins were not in isotopic equilibrium with the immediately adjacent rocks. The pods have δ13Ccalcite values of –2 to –7% and δ18Ocalcite values of 10.5 to 12.5%. Away from the pods, metadolerite wallrocks have δ18Owhole-rock values of 3.5 to 7%. and unaltered banded calc-silicate and marble wallrocks have δ13Ccalcite of –1.6 to –0.6%, and δ18Ocalcite of 18 to 21%. In the alteration zones adjacent to the pods, the δ18O values of both metadolerite and calc-silicate rocks approach those of the pods. Large calcite pods hosted entirely in calc-silicates show little difference in isotopic composition from pods hosted entirely in metadolerite. Thus, 100- to 500-m-scale isotopic exchange with the surrounding metadolerites and calc-silicates does not explain the observation that the δ18O values of the pods are intermediate between these two rock types. Pods hosted in felsic metavolcanics and metasiltstones are also isotopically indistinguishable from those hosted in the dominant metadolerites and calc-silicates. These data suggest the veins are the product of infiltration of isotopically homogeneous fluids that were not derived from within the Corella Formation at the presently exposed crustal level, although some of the spread in the data may be due to a relatively small contribution from devolatilization reactions in the calc-silicates, or thermal fluctuations attending deformation and metamorphism. The overall L-shaped trend of the data on plots of δ13C vs. δ18O is most consistent with mixing of large volumes of externally derived fluids with small volumes of locally derived fluid produced by devolatilization of calc-silicate rocks. Localization of the vein systems in dilatant sites around metadolerite/calc-silicate boundaries indicates a strong structural control on fluid flow, and the stable isotope data suggest fluid migration must have occurred at scales greater than at least 1 km. The ultimate source for the external fluid is uncertain, but is probably fluid released from crystallizing melts derived from the lower crust or upper mantle. Intrusion of magmas below the exposed crustal level would also explain the high geothermal gradient calculated for the regional metamorphism.

Notes: Abstract The widespread khondalite series of south-east Inner Mongolia consists largely of biotite–sillimanite–garnet gneiss and quartzo-feldspathic gneiss with some marble and mafic granulite layers. It has experienced two metamorphic events at c. 2500 and 1900–2000 Ma.A pre-peak stage of the first metamorphism at T= 600–700°C and P 〉 6–7 kbar is recognized by the relict amphibolite facies assemblage Ky–Grt–Bt–Pl–Qtz and ‘protected’inclusions of biotite, hornblende, sodic plagioclase and quartz in garnet or orthopyroxene. The peak stage, with T=c. 800 ± 50°C and P 8–10 kbar, is characterized by the widespread granulite facies assemblages Sil–Grt–Bt–Kfs–Pl–Qtz in gneiss and Opx–Cpx–Pl ± Hbl ± Grt in granulite. The P–T–t path suggests that the supracrustal sequence was buried in the lower crust by tectonic thickening during D1–D2.The beginning of the second metamorphism is characterized by further temperature rise to 700°C or more at lower pressure. This stage is manifested by the appearance of cordierite after garnet, fibrolite (Sil2) after biotite in gneiss and transformation of Hbl1 into Opx2 and Cpx2 in granulite. Coronas of symplectitic Opx2 + Pl2 surrounding Grt1 and Cpx1 in mafic granulite are interpreted as products of near-isothermal decompression. The P–T–t path may be related tectonically to waning extension of the crust by the end of the early Proterozoic.

Notes: Abstract The Qinling–Dabie accretionary fold belt in east-central China represents the E–W trending suture zone between the Sino-Korean and Yangtze cratons. A portion of the accretionary complex exposed in northern Hubei Province contains a high-pressure/low-temperature metamorphic sequence progressively metamorphosed from the blueschist through greenschist to epidote–amphibolite/eclogite facies. The ‘Hongan metamorphic belt’can be divided into three metamorphic zones, based on progressive changes in mineral assemblages: Zone I, in the south, is characterized by transitional blueschist–greenschist facies; Zone II is characterized by greenschist facies; Zone III, in the northernmost portion of the belt, is characterized by eclogite and epidote–amphibolite facies sequences. Changes in amphibole compositions from south to north as well as the appearance of increasingly higher pressure mineral assemblages toward the north document differences in metamorphic P–T conditions during formation of this belt. Preliminary P–T estimates for Zone I metamorphism are 5–7 kbar, 350–450°C; estimates for Zone III eclogites are 10–22 kbar, 500 ± 50°C.The petrographic, chemical and structural characteristics of this metamorphic belt indicate its evolution in a northward-dipping subduction zone and subsequent uplift prior to and during the final collision between the Sino-Korean and Yangtze cratons.

Notes: Abstract The Lancang metamorphic terrane consists of an eastern low-P/T belt and a western high-P/T belt divided by a N–S-trending fault. Protoliths of both units are mid–late Proterozoic basement and its cover. The low-P/T belt includes the Permian Lincang batholith, related amphibolite facies rocks of the Damenglong and Chongshan groups, and Permo-Triassic volcanic and volcaniclastic rocks. Most whole-rock Rb–Sr isochron and U–Pb zircon ages of the Lincang batholith are in the range 290–279 and 254–212 Ma, respectively. Metamorphism of the low-P/T belt reaches upper amphibolite with local granulite facies (735°C at 5 kbar), subsequently retrogressed at 450–500°C during post-Triassic time. The high-P/T rocks grade from west to east from blueschist through transitional blueschist/greenschist to epidote amphibolite facies. Estimated P–T conditions follow the high-P intermediate facies series up to about 550–600°C, at which oligoclase is stable. The 40Ar/39Ar plateau age of sodic amphibole in blueschist is 279 Ma.The paired metamorphic belts combined with the spatial and temporal distribution of other blueschist belts lead us to propose a tentative tectonic history of south-east Asia since the latest Precambrian. Tectonic juxtaposition of paired belts with contrasting P–T conditions, perhaps during collision of the Baoshan block with south-east Asia, suggests that an intervening oceanic zone existed that has been removed. The Baoshan block is a microcontinent rifted from the northern periphery of Gondwana. Successive collision and amalgamation of microcontinents from either Gondwana or the Panthalassan ocean resulted in rapid southward continental growth of c. 500 km during the last 200 Ma. Hence, the Lancang region in south-east Asia represents a suture zone between two contrasting microcontinents.

Notes: Abstract The high-grade metamorphic rocks of southern Brittany underwent a complex tectonic evolution under various P-T conditions (high-P, high-T), related to stacking of nappes during Palaeozoic continentcontinent collision.The east to west thrusting observed in the whole belt is strongly perturbed by vertical movements attributed to the ascent of anatectic granites in the high-T area. The field reconstruction of subvertical, closed elliptical structures in gneisses and migmatites, associated with the subhorizontal, doubly radial pattern of stretching lineation in the mica schists, suggests the existence of an elliptical diapiric body buried at depth beneath the present erosion level.Deformation is associated with a complex P-T evolution partly recorded in aluminous gneisses (kinzigites, e.g. morbihanites). A chronology of successive episodes of mineral growth at different compositions is established by detailed studies of the mineral-microstructure relationships in X-Z sections, using the deformation-partitioning concept (low- and high-strain zones).Several thermometric and barometric calibrations are applied to mineral pairs either in contact or not in contact but in equivalent microstructiiral positions with respect to the deformation history. This methodology provides a continuous microstructural control of P-T variations through time and leads to three P-T-t-d paths constructed from numerous successive P-T estimations. Path 1 is a clockwise retrograde path preserved in low-strain zones, which records general exhumation movements after crustal thickening. Paths 2 and 3 are clockwise prograde/retrograde paths from high-strain zones; they are interpreted and discussed in the light of models of crustal anatexis and upward movement of magma (diapirism). Deformation and P-T effects induced by diapirism can be distinguished from the general deformation-metamorphic history of a belt, and would seem to be produced during a late stage of its history.The present microstructural-petrological approach to defining successive mineral equilibria in relation to progressive deformation steps provides a far more accurate evaluation of the metamorphic evolution than is possible by ‘standard’thermobarometry.

Notes: Abstract The metamorphic history of the Middle to Upper Jurassic volcanic and hypabyssal rocks exposed in the Klamath Mountains and Sierra Nevada of California is related, in part, to the rifting of a volcano-plutonic arc. The Callovian to Kimmeridgian rocks exposed in the region consist of, from north-west to south-east, a back-arc ophiolite, a rifted volcanic arc and a volcanic arc complex. All of these units have been metamorphosed and contain various combinations of the phases chlorite, amphibole, epidote, prehnite and pumpellyite. Projection of coexisting phases onto the composition plane MgO/(MgO + FeO) and Al2O3+ Fe2O3 - 0.75 CaO - Na2O through quartz, water, albite and epidote results in consistent mineralogical compatibilities within each region, but crossing tie-lines between regions. This suggests that the volcanic and hypabyssal rocks from each region have equilibrated under different intensive conditions.The back-arc ophiolite in the north has suffered subseafloor high-T/P hydrothermal metamorphism with geothermal gradients on the order of 100° C km−1. The rifted volcanic arc has undergone synchronous burial, hydrothermal and contact metamorphism. Metamorphic field gradients in the region pass through the prehnite-pumpellyite and greenschist facies suggesting geothermal gradients on the order of 30° C km−1. The southernmost volcanic arc complexes contain metavolcanics of the pumpellyiteactinolite and greenschist facies suggesting moderate- to high-P/T metamorphism and geothermal gradients on the order of 20° C km−1.The apparent increase in rifting and calculated geothermal gradients from south-east to north-west suggest that the observed very low- and low-grade metamorphism may be a response to enhanced thermal gradients during extension of the volcanic arc. This correlation between the extent of rifting and metamorphism is consistent with a model of diastathermal metamorphism of a propagating rift along the western margin of North America during the Late Jurassic. The plate tectonic setting may be analogous to the present-day Andaman Sea region.

Notes: Abstract The Upper Cretaceous and Tertiary volcanic sequences in the Chilean Andes are affected by burial metamorphism. For example, in central Chile (between 32°30’and 35°S), the Abanico Formation, a folded upper Cretaceous to Palaeogene unit composed of basic lavas, tuffs and ash flows of intermediate composition and volcaniclastic sandstones, is characterized by heulandite- to laumontite-bearing zeolite facies assemblages in its upper part passing with depth to prehnite–pumpellyite facies assemblages.However, at c. 33°30'S in the Abanico Hill area, located just east of a graben at Santiago (the longitudinal Central Valley), the alteration pattern is unrelated to stratigraphic depth. It is characterized by a lateral increase in grade defined by assemblages with yugawaralite (reported for the first time in the Andes) laumontite, then wairakite ± epidote, and finally with abundant epidote successively closer to the graben boundary. This pattern was formed in a palaeogeothermal system with a high-T and a very low-P gradient. Geothermal alteration has also been inferred from the border zone of a Neogene caldera in the Abanico Hill area, and from the western fault boundary of the graben.These expressions of geothermal alteration, together with the occurrence of caldera structures, the huge volume of ignimbrites and numerous epithermal precious metal deposits of late Cretaceous and Tertiary age in central and northern Chile, suggest that fossil geothermal systems of this age are probably common features in the Chilean Andes.

Notes: Abstract Petrological, oxygen isotope and 40Ar/39Ar studies were used to constrain the Tertiary metamorphic evolution of the lower tectonic unit of the Cyclades on Tinos. Polyphase high-pressure metamorphism reached pressures in excess of 15 kbar, based on measurements of the Si content in potassic white mica. Temperatures of 450–500° C at the thermal peak of high-pressure metamorphism were estimated from critical metamorphic assemblages, the validity of which is confirmed by a quartz–magnetite oxygen isotope temperature of 470° C. Some 40Ar/39Ar spectra of white mica give plateau ages of 44–40 Ma that are considered to represent dynamic recrystallization under peak or slightly post-peak high-pressure metamorphic conditions. Early stages in the prograde high-pressure evolution may be documented by older apparent ages in the high-temperature steps of some spectra.Eclogite to epidote blueschist facies mineralogies were partially or totally replaced by retrograde greenschist facies assemblages during exhumation. Oxygen isotope thermometry of four quartz–magnetite pairs from greenschist samples gives temperatures of 440–470° C which cannot be distinguished from those deduced for the high-pressure event. The exhumation and overprint is documented by decreasing ages of 32–28 Ma in some greenschists and late-stage blueschist rocks, and ages of 30–20 Ma in the lower temperature steps of the Ar release patterns of blueschist micas. Almost flat parts of Ar–Ar release spectra of some greenschist micas gave ages of 23–21 Ma which are assumed to represent incomplete resetting caused by a renewed prograde phase of greenschist metamorphism.Oxygen isotope compositions of blueschist and greenschist facies minerals show no evidence for the infiltration of a δ18O-enriched fluid. Rather, the compositions indicate that fluid to rock ratios were very low, the isotopic compositions being primarily controlled by those of the protolith rocks. We assume that the fundamental control catalysing the transformation of blueschists into greenschists and the associated resetting of their isotopic systems was the selective infiltration of metamorphic fluid. A quartz–magnetite sample from a contact metamorphic skarn, taken near the Miocene monzogranite of Tinos, gave an oxygen isotope temperature of 555° C and calculated water composition of 9.1%. The value of δ18O obtained from this water is consistent with a primary magmatic fluid, but is lower than that of fluids associated with the greenschist overprint, which indicates that the latter event cannot be directly related to the monozogranite intrusion.

Notes: Abstract Orthopyroxene-bearing migmatites, exposed at the summit of Cone Peak in the Santa Lucia Range, California, offer an opportunity to explore potential links between granulite facies metamorphism and migmatite formation. Geothermobarometry indicates that the metamorphic temperatures and pressures were in the approximate ranges of 700–750° C and 7.0–7.5 kbar. The rocks at the summit comprise three domains: relatively coarse-grained, leucocratic veins; relatively fine-grained, biotite-enriched zones at the margins of the veins; and a biotite–hornblende-bearing host rock. Orthopyroxene is concentrated in the veins, which have also the highest ratio of anhydrous to hydrous minerals of the three rock types. The composition of the veins, together with their textures and modes, suggest that they formed through anatexis involving a dehydration-melting reaction which consumed hornblende and produced orthopyroxene. Variability in mineralogy and composition indicates that there was some local migration of magma along the veins before their final solidification. The biotite-enriched zones formed either by the concentration of residual biotite at the margins of the vein, or through the metasomatic conversion of hornblende (and/or pyroxene) to biotite, or by a combination of the two processes. Significant differences in the chemistry of the neosome (vein + biotite-enriched zone) and the host rock rule out simple dehydration melting in a local closed system. The model that explains best the mineralogical and chemical patterns involves triggering of melting by an influx of a low-aH2O mixed fluid which added K and Si to and removed Ca from the neosome.

Notes: Abstract In the Adirondack Highlands of New York State, the effect of granulite facies metamorphism on the physical and isotopic characteristics of zircon from anorogenic plutonic rocks has a distinct geographical pattern. The location of zircon populations which appear to have been altered describes a roughly circular area where metamorphic palaeotemperatures have been determined to be in excess of 750° C. Zircons from anorogenic plutonic rocks outside this area were undisturbed during metamorphism and yield well constrained ages.Granitic, charnockitic and mangeritic anorogenic plutonic rocks peripheral to the Marcy anorthosite massif have large, euhedral, prismatic zircons that display fine, internal, magmatic growth zonations and abundant, randomly orientated, mineral inclusions. Co-genetic zircon fractions yield linear discordant arrays and well constrained upper intercepts of 1125–1157 Ma. Metamorphic zircon is limited to sporadically developed and volumetrically insignificant, clear, low-U overgrowths or protuberances.In marked contrast, zircons from petrographically and geochemically identical rocks adjacent to, or within, the Marcy anorthosite massif are typically large, limpid, anhedral to subhedral crystals or crystal fragments lacking internal features except for tubular cavities and CO-2-rich inclusions. Co-genetic zircon fractions yield nearly concordant, non-linear clusters with 207Pb/206Pb minimum ages of 1073–1095 Ma. Metamorphic overgrowths cannot be readily identified by optical or cathodoluminscence techniques; however, many grains show complex and unusual external boundaries suggestive of post-crystallization modification.These data indicate that temperatures as low as 750° C, in combination with other factors, may have been sufficient to facilitate recrystallization, and diffusion of radiogenic Pb from the zircon crystal structure, during the complex, protracted metamorphism of the Adirondack Highlands.

Notes: Abstract Archaean greenstone belts are often cut by major shear zones, for example the Cadillac tectonic zone (CTZ) of the southern Abitibi region in north-western Quebec. At McWatters, the CTZ contains slices of metavolcanic units bounded by corridors of highly strained and altered rocks. Mineral assemblages of the metabasites record the metamorphic evolution of the CTZ.The McWatters metabasalts and metagabbros have similar chemistry but different mineral assemblages consisting of variable amounts of actinolite, hornblende, chlorite, albite, epidote, quartz, carbonates, titanite, biotite, rutile, magnetite, ilmenite and sulphides. The different mineral assemblages, which coexist in a single tectonic slice, can be divided into three types, characterized by (A) presence of hornblende and actinolite, (B) presence of actinolite and epidote, and (C) absence of amphibole and epidote. Partial replacements indicate that these mineral assemblages are not in equilibrium. The hornblende of the least altered and deformed samples of the type A assemblage is a relict of a prograde metamorphic event, contemporaneous with the development of the main schistosity. The prograde conditions are estimated at P= 5 kbar, T= 475° C with low Pf. The more altered and deformed samples of the type C assemblage record a later retrograde metamorphic event. Conditions of the later event are estimated at P= 4 kbar, T= 400° C with higher Pf. Widespread calcite precipitation occurred during a later episode. The diversity of the mineral assemblages results from permeability variations along the high-strain zones of the CTZ.

Notes: Abstract Mineral equilibria in the system CaO–MgO–Al2O3–SiO2–H2O provide a basis for mapping of four reaction isograds and one bathograd in the low-pressure transition from subgreenschist to greenschist facies. Most of the Matachewan area of the Abitibi greenstone belt is in the lower-pressure bathozone, as indicated by the widespread occurrences of the subassemblage Prh–Chl. The higher-pressure bathozone is indicated by two occurrences of Pmp–Act–Ep–Qtz, but in these samples the bathograd is displaced to anomalously low pressure by the high Fe content of the coexisting minerals. This illustrates the need to analyse coexisting minerals, calculate activities of end-member species, and compute P–T curves for individual samples before interpreting the isograd/bathograd pattern.Petrographic and microprobe analysis indicates that great care must be taken in the selection of ‘equilibrium’ assemblages. Pyroxene phenocrysts in one sample are replaced by the assemblage Pmp–Act–Ep–Chl–Qtz, whereas Prh–Act–Ep–Chl–Qtz occurs in the groundmass. Compositional variation may be more cryptic, as in a sample of metabasaltic hyaloclastite that contains two spatially distinct ‘univariant’ assemblages, Prh–Pmp–Ep–Chl–Qtz and Prh–Act–Ep–Chl–Qtz, within the devitrified matrix. Whereas chlorite compositions are similar in both assemblages, prehnite and epidote in the latter assemblage are significantly richer in Fe and poorer in Al. Accordingly, the rock is interpreted to contain two distinct ‘univariant’ assemblages, rather than one ‘invariant’ assemblage (Prh–Pmp–Act–Ep–Chl–Qtz). The displaced ‘univariant’ curves for this sample intersect at 2.2 kbar and 250°C.Taking account of all thermobarometric implications, the low-grade limit of the greenschist facies is at 250–270°C and 2–2.5 kbar, corresponding to depths of 7–8 km. Comparison of apparent P–T conditions on both sides of the Larder Lake – Cadillac break, a regional CO2-metasomatized fault zone that is spatially associated with many Archaean gold deposits, provides an upper limit of not more than c. 1 km for post-metamorphic south-side-up, dip-slip displacement.

Notes: Livestock have been excluded from riparian zones along many streams in western North America in an effort to restore aquatic and riparian habitat degraded by livestock grazing. Within these exclosures, channel adjustment to elimination of grazing pressure may lag behind plant recovery because of the time required to deposit sediment along the vegetated banks of the stream channel. Moreover, unless grazing is eliminated from the watershed, the channel within the exclosure must still accommodate increased runoff and sediment loads from upstream. This hydrologic regime may prevent a return to predisturbance channel morphology. Cross sections of the North Fork Cottonwood Creek in the White Mountains of California showed no significant difference in channel width within and downstream of a 24-year-old exclosure, despite a lush growth of stream bank vegetation that gives the impression of a narrower channel within the exclosure.

Notes: Many felids are threatened by loss of habitat, lack of genetic diversity, and over-exploitation. The reintroduction of bobcats (Felis rufus) to Cumberland Island, Georgia provided an opportunity to reintroduce a mid-sized felid without the concern for species survival that is paramount with endangered species. We captured bobcats from the coastal plain region of Georgia, briefly held them in captivity, and released them on Cumberland Island. We describe and evaluate the protocols and techniques used to accomplish the reintroduction. Future reintroductions of felids should consider the problem of post-release dispersal, although our island was relatively isolated and inhibited dispersal. Also, any reintroduction effort should invest effort and resources into post-release monitoring of the population. Empirical knowledge about the effects of spatial distribution, genetics, population dynamics, especially mechanisms of population regulation, behavior, and environmental conditions on the viability of populations is critical to the conservation of endangered species. Future research of the bobcats on Cumberland Island will be able to address aspects of the population and genetic dynamics of a small, insular felid population.

Notes: We studied the use of mineland wetlands by birds and the relationship between avian communities and wetland characteristics. Data were collected from 20 wetlands in Pike County, Indiana, and included wetland size, depth, water conductivity and salinity, aquatic macroinvertebrate abundance, vegetation, and bird use. Principal component analysis showed that physical variables could be explained by two principal component scores and that wetlands could be grouped on the basis of size and conductivity. Principal component analysis could not reduce vegetation variables to fewer principal component scores, meaning that wetland vegetation characteristics were independent of one another and did not show any trend. Most wetlands had low invertebrate density, and wetlands with higher invertebrate density had low invertebrate diversity. Wetlands with similar habitat characteristics (physical, vegetative, and invertebrate) did not necessarily show similarities in bird assemblages. Bird similarity index values ranged from 0 to 59%, implying that each wetland has its own bird community. Stepwise multiple regression analysis (α= 0.05) relating bird use and habitat characteristics showed that bird species richness increased with the species richness of submergent vegetation and was correlated negatively with the species richness of emergent vegetation. There was no significant relationship between bird species richness or bird species diversity and wetland size. The number of species within different avian guilds correlated with different habitat characteristics. The species richness of submergent plants was a factor that correlated positively with the number of species of several guilds (dabblers, wading birds, and plunge divers). Wetland age was not a factor that determined bird use.

Notes: Grass seeding is widely used for erosion control, but its consequences for soil and regeneration following fire have been measured only infrequently. This study investigates the effect of grass seeding on the type and extent of plant cover; soil moisture percentage; and moisture stress, survival, growth, and root-tip and mycorrhiza formation of Pinus lambertiana (sugar pine) seedlings in a clearcut intensely burned by wildfire. One-year-old containerized sugar pine seedlings were planted in seeded and nonseeded areas in Spring 1988 and 1989 in the Longwood Fire area of southwest Oregon. In 1988, tree seedlings in grass-seeded plots experienced intense competition from the grass, reduced root-tip and mycorrhiza formation, low levels of soil moisture to meet evapotranspirational demand, high levels of mortality, and reduced growth. In 1989, however, the opposite was true: tree seedlings in nonseeded plots experienced competition from invading native annuals and perennials, low levels of soil moisture in summer, and higher levels of mortality. The studies we report here further indicate that, in an area characterized by extended summer drought, annual ryegrass impeded regeneration of sugar pine during the first season following the fire. Native species cover and richness have been significantly reduced in the seeded area and may affect long-term soil stability, productivity, and conifer restoration. Seeding of annual ryegrass at high rates under these conditions would seem ill advised.

Notes: Books reviewed in this article: Reintegrating Fragmented Landscapes towards Sustainable Production and Nature Conservation. R. J. Hobbs and D. A. Saunders. editors Restoring Acid Waters: Loch Fleet 1984–1990. G. Howels, and T.R.K. Dalziel, editors

Notes: In prairie restoration, use of seeds from nonlocal sources has been of concern to restorationists. We examined the specificity between vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi obtained from a single location and little bluestem obtained from three localities. Seed was obtained from three sources: (1) a commercial seed supplier in Nebraska, (2) Sand Ridge State Forest (SRSF), Mason County, Illinois, the site from which the experimental soil containing the mycorrhizal inoculum was obtained, and (3) Sand Prairie Scrub Oak Nature Preserve (SPSO), 32 km southwest of SRSF. Plants were grown in three substrates: (1) autoclaved soil, (2) autoclaved soil to which a mycorrhizal fungal-free sieving of nonautoclaved soil was added, and (3) nonautoclaved soil. All plants grown in nonautoclaved soil were colonized by mycorrhizal fungi, whereas none of those grown in other substrates were colonized. Plants grown from SRSF seeds produced significantly (p 〈 0.05) more biomass than those grown from Nebraska seeds (X̄± SE, SRSF = 0.54 ± 0.04 g, SPSO = 0.49 ± 0.03 g, Nebraska = 0.37 ± 0.03 g). Plants grown in nonautoclaved soil, regardless of seed source, produced less biomass (0.27 ± 0.02 g) than plants grown in autoclaved soil (0.58 ± 0.03 g) or autoclaved soil plus sievings (0.59 ± 0.03 g).The results provide no clear indication of a host-endophyte specificity. However, the data suggest that the local genotypes of S. scoparium are better adapted to their native soil environment than are genotypes from other localities.

Notes: Glasshouse trials, using trickle irrigation and increasing levels of NaOH-induced alkalinity, identified species that could be expected to tolerate the high-pH conditions of bauxite processing waste residue sites. Of 29 taxa tested, the most tolerant were Casuarina obesa, Melaleuca lanceolata, M. armillaris, M. nesophila, Eucalyptus loxophleba, E. halophila, E. platypus, Tamarix aphylla, and a particular clone of E. camaldulensis; E. spathulata, E. tetragona, E. preissiana, E. gomphocephala, E. diptera, and E. occidentalis proved to be relatively sensitive to severe alkaline conditions. Tolerance appeared to relate to an ability to maintain root membrane function, nutrient uptake balance, and ultimately root tissue structure while under increasing levels of alkalinity stress. Species normally inhabiting alkaline soils tended to have increased growth rates in nutrient irrigation conditions between pH 8 and 10 compared with control plants irrigated with nutrient solutions of pH values near 7.4. However, once the irrigation solutions reached pH 12 and the buffering capacity of the soil appeared to be exceeded, the condition of susceptible plants rapidly declined and death followed. Sensitive plants initially showed symptoms related to nutrient deficiency, followed by wilting and death as the root systems failed. Field trial conditions in the bauxite residue impoundments at Kwinana, Western Australia, include soils with pH values as high as 11.00. In general, the relative survival and growth of seedlings after eight months were predicted by the response under glasshouse trial conditions. Appropriately designed stress trials can be important ecological techniques in choosing species most capable of surviving difficult environmental conditions in the rehabilitation of damaged landscapes.

Notes: In ecological restoration, nonindigenous species can pose a major problem because they are often aggressive and can overwhelm native species, thus altering ecosystem structure. This article identifies the circumstances in which prospects for use of restoration technology in controlling invaders are favorable or unfavorable, the factors that make certain species good colonizers, and the characteristics that make ecosystems susceptible to invasion. It discusses prospects for using restoration technology in controlling nonindigenous species by influencing hydroperiod, photo-period, thermoperiod, edaphic conditions, and availability of biological control agents so as to produce ecological conditions that are inhospitable to invaders. The limitations of restoration are discussed, as well as specific ecological situations in which it is likely to be the method of choice for control of nonindigenous species. Use of fire, flooding, manual removal, shading, substrate removal, and herbicide application as control techniques in conjunction with restoration efforts are considered. Specific examples, including the techniques employed, indicate the potential for controlling nonindigenous species in the process of ecosystem restoration.

Notes: Adequately evaluating the success of coastal tidal marsh restoration has lagged behind the actual practice of restoring tidally restricted salt marshes. A Spartina-dominated valley marsh at Barn Island Wildlife Management Area, Stonington, Connecticut, was tidally restricted in 1946 and consequently converted mostly to Typha angustifolia. With the re-introduction of tidal flooding in 1978, much of the marsh has reverted to Spartina alterniflora. Using a geographical information system (GIS), this study measures restoration success by the extent of geographical similarity between the vegetation of the restored marsh and the pre-impounded marsh. Based on geographical comparisons among different hydrologic states, pre-impounded (1946), impounded (1976), and restored (1988) tidal marsh restoration is a convergent process. Although salt marsh species currently dominate the restored system, the magnitude of actual agreement between the pre-impounded vegetation and that of the restored marsh is only moderate. Further restoration of the salt marsh vegetation may be limited by continued tidal restriction, marsh surface subsidence, and reduced accretion rates. General trends of recovery are identified using a gradient approach and the geographic pattern’ of vegetation change. In the strictest sense, if restoration refers only to vegetation types that geographically replicate preexisting types, then only 28% of the marsh has been restored. Restoration in a broader sense, however, representing the original salt marsh vegetation regardless of spatial position, amounts to 63% restored. Unrestored marsh, dominated by Typha angustifolia and Phragmites australis, remains at 37%. By emphasizing trends during vegetation recovery, this evaluation technique aims to understand the restoration process, direct future research goals, and ultimately aid in future restoration projects.

Notes: Books reviewed in this article: The Earth in Transition: Patterns and Processes of Biotic Impoverishment. A collection of papers from a symposium held in Woods Hole, Massachusetts, October 1986. George M. Woodwell, editor Restoration of Aquatic Ecosystems: Science, Technology, and Public Policy. National Research Council.

Notes: Results are presented using vegetative shoots and bryophyte sods to restore floristically impoverished high arctic wet sedge-moss meadows that had suffered intense damage from vehicle activity during the period 1960–1967. Clonal transplants of Carex aquatilis var. stans, a native sedge, were planted with and without bryophyte sods in vehicle ruts in 1972. After nearly two decades, there was less Carex cover in the planted ruts with flowing water than in the contiguous controls. This pattern was slightly reversed in planted plots with standing water. Reinvasion of Eriophorum angustifolium occurred in treated ruts, but cover was less in both treatments than in controls in 1990. The unexpected recruitment of Eriophorum scheuchzeri from the seed bank in moss-sodded plots is discussed in terms of its local and regional importance. Total plant cover in restored ruts was nearly equal to that of controls, but biomass was somewhat less than that in control plots. Plots with bryophytes were environmentally distinct, due primarily to increases in organic mat depth relative to controls. After 18 years, restoration efforts resulted in increased plant cover in treated ruts compared to naturally recovering ruts.〈blockFixed type="quotation"〉The composition of no two patches of vegetation is precisely the same [and] neither are the seed banks. Successsion on different patches of disturebed ground in the same locality frequently proceeds quite differently because of such differences.—J. Miles, Vegetation Dynamics, 1979

Notes: In markets, in which exchange requires costly search for trading partners, intermediaries can help to reduce the trading frictions. This intuition is modeled in a framework with heterogeneous agents, who have the choice between intermediated exchange and search accompanied by some bargaining procedure. The equilibria of such a game are characterized. In the case of a monopolistic intermediary, the tradeoff between the bid-ask spread and the costs of delay during private search determine the intermediary's clientele. In equilibrium the monopolist charges a positive spread. Traders with large gains from trade prefer to deal with him, whereas traders with relatively low gains from trade engage in search. In case of competition among intermediaries, the classical Bertrand result obtains, and bid and ask prices converge to the (unique) Walrasian equilibrium price. Thus, in the confines of the model, the Walrasian auctioneer of the market under consideration can be replaced by competing intermediaries. In addition a multiplicity of subgame perfect Nash equilibria emphasizes the coordination problems inherent in models of intermediation.

Notes: A number of recent Canadian and U.S. antitrust cases have involved allegations that manufacturers of durable products have refused to supply parts to independent service organizations, apparently to monopolize the market for repairs of their products. This paper provides a theory of these strategies and considers the welfare implications of judicial orders to supply. The refusals here are seen as necessary to protect manufacturers' program of price discrimination: Expensive repairs represent a way to select high-intensity, high-value users and charge them more. In addition to the usual ambiguity associated with the welfare effects of prohibitions of price discrimination, forcing competition in repairs can have the further damaging effect of reducing social welfare by inducing manufacturers to lower product quality.

Notes: The litigation crisis in this country is a subject of great importance to the chief executive officers of public uccounting firms. 1 will first address the problem's magnitude and its source and then speculate on the developments we might expect in the future. Like all forecasts, mine will certainly be wrung. I hope that my degree of error on the pessimistic side will be considerable.

Notes: Research and development (R&D) competition among firms has recently been extended to R&D competition involving research joint ventures. It was previously shown that in an industry conducting cost-reducing R&D followed by competition in the product market, if all firms both fully share R&D information and coordinate investments to maximize pint profits, final products prices are lower, and firms' profits are higher than with information shriving alone, joint profit maximization alone, or no cooperation. In this paper we question whether a single research joint venture (RJV) cartel is the best form of industry R&D coordination. We show that there are circumstances in which splitting a single RJV cartel into several competing ones yields lower product prices. Moreover, we show that in these circumstances, splitting the industry into exactly two competing RJV cartels would be best.

Notes: This paper studies the order of adoption of a process innovation, thin-slab casting, by U.S. steel makers. A game-theoretic model of technology adoption with capacity constraints indicates that incumbents are likely to trail entrants in adopting process technologies that reduce the minimal scale required to compete. Evidence from the case study also indicates, however, that the sorts of interactive effects emphasized by game-theoretic models may be dominated by the effects of competitors' heterogeneous precommitments.

Notes: The microstructures in the Erro-Tobbio peridotite indicate several stages of recrystallization of olivine + titanian clinohumite-bearing assemblages. The development of these assemblages is closely associated with serpentinite mylonites, in which they occur in shear bands and foliations and are inferred to have grown synkinematically, in veins, and as post-kinematic radial aggregates. In the peridotite wall-rock adjacent to these mylonites, the same assemblages have recrystallized statically at the expense of original olivine and pyroxenes, mesh-textured chrysolite and antigorite veins. In addition, the olivine-bearing assemblage occurs in widespread vein systems. The brittle deformation of the peridotite resulting in the development of these vein systems is closely related to ductile deformation of metagabbroic dykes in the peridotite. Although early metasomatism resulted in extensive rodingitization of the gabbros, some dykes show an eclogitic assemblage of Na-clinopyroxene + garnet + chloritoid + chlorite ± talc. These observations, the microstructures and the mineral chemistry all suggest that the assemblages in the ultramafic rocks and metagabbros developed during a prograde evolution towards high pressures (〉13–16 kbar, 450–550° C), and during subsequent decompression. This metamorphic evolution is considered to be related to Late Cretaceous intraoceanic subduction in the Alps-Apennine system and closure of the Piedmont-Ligurian basin.

Notes: Abstract In well NJ-15 of the Nesjavellir geothermal field, Iceland, the transition of discrete smectite into discrete chlorite has been studied from drill cuttings recovered at depths of less than 1714 m and over a continuous range of temperatures between 60 and 300° C. At temperatures below 180° C, the clay fractions contain mixtures of di- and trioctahedral smectites, whose layer charge increases with depth. Between 200 and 240° C, discrete smectites have transformed into smectite-rich, randomly interstratified chlorite and smecite (R0 C/S). Because the abundance of chlorite interlayers in this C/S is generally 〈20%, its presence can be detected only by electron microprobe techniques and not by X-ray diffraction. Between 245 and 265° C, both regularly (R1) and randomly interstratified C/S are the predominant layer silicates. Discrete chlorite first appears at approximately 270° C and coexists with minor amounts of R0 C/S at higher temperatures. R0 and R1 C/S form a nearly complete compositional series between trioctahedral saponite and discrete chlorite end-members. The interlayer cation and Si content of smectites and C/S decrease with increasing temperature. The Mg/(Mg + Fe) content of smectite, C/S, and chlorite is unrelated to temperature. The percentage of chlorite in C/S, as determined by electron microprobe analyses, increases continuously with increasing temperature, except for occurrences of smectite-rich C/S in fresh basaltic dykes which have not thermally equilibrated with the higher grade country rocks.

Notes: Abstract Fairly strong (r= 0.75–0.85) positive linear correlations were found between crystallinity indices (peak widths) measured on the first two basal reflections of chlorite and those of illite–muscovite in 〈2-μm fractions of a representative shale–slate–phyllite series from Palaeozoic and Mesozoic formations of northeast Hungary. The metamorphic grade ranges from late or deep diagenesis through anchizone to epizone conditions. Chlorite crystallinity values measured on air-dried and ethylene-glycol-solvated samples suggest that the effects of expandable interlayers are negligable, especially in the higher grade (∼temperature) part of the series. However, the greater scattering of crystallinity values for the chlorite 001 reflection compared to those of the 002 reflection may be related to the effects of minor amounts of interlayered and/or discrete smectite and/or vermiculite. With increasing metamorphic grade and advancing equilibrium recrystallization, the chlorite compositions in different samples become more homogenous. No correlation exists between crystallinity and changes in chlorite composition as estimated from the intensity ratios of basal reflections. Hence an increase of domain size and a decrease of lattice distortion with increasing grade (∼temperature) may be decisive factors affecting chlorite crystallinity.Chlorite crystallinity can be applied as a reliable regional, statistical technique complementary with, or instead of, the illite crystallinity method. The illite and chlorite crystallinity scales used here are related to Kübler's epi-, anchi- and diagenetic zones and correlated with coal rank, conodont colour alteration and mineral facies data. As the effects of the detrital white mica can be observed even in the 〈2-μm fractions of anchizonal metapelites, the anchizone boundaries determined solely on the base of ‘fixed’illite crystallinity values may vary with amounts of detrital and newly formed muscovite–illite. Hence a complex approach utilizing more than one method for determination of grade is preferred for petrogenetic purposes, even if relationships between crystallinity scales, coal rank and mineral facies also vary strongly in different tectonic settings and lithologies.

Notes: Abstract Illite crystallinity (IC) and other indicators of the grade of very-low-grade metamorphism associated with the appearance of various stages of slaty cleavage in phyllosilicate-rich rocks have been compiled from a wide variety of terranes. IC values have been converted to a Kübler-equivalent standard scale, but the diverse characterizations of the cleavage fabrics in published descriptions do not always allow an unequivocal identification of equivalent stages of cleavage development.Nevertheless, there exists a distinct relationship between grade and the appearance of various stages of cleavage development.(1) Indications of incipient slaty cleavage, such as S0–S1 pencil structure, appearance of primary (S1) crenulation cleavage and of closely-spaced cleavage without parallel fabric in the microlithons, is associated with a wide range of mostly medium- and high-grade diagenetic IC values.(2) The appearance of smooth cleavage with a strong parallel fabric in the microlithons and/or quartz–mica ‘beards’and the chlorite–mica stacks shortened at a high angle to (001), and of irregular cleavage in sandy beds is associated with a much narrower range of predominantly low- and medium-grade anchimetamorphic grades (rarely high-grade diagenetic). The first appearance of these stages of cleavage development with higher grades can often be related to post-kinematic magmatic heating, polymetamorphism (pre-cleavage metamorphism), or ‘static’recrystallization without cleavage formation, for example in low-strain zones.There exists a relationship between finite strain, fabric and metamorphic grade in mudstones and slates; in coarser clastic rocks the same finite strain–fabric relationship occurs at appreciably higher grades. A relationship between finite strain in carbonate rocks and IC in the nearby rocks has been reported from the Helvetic zone of the Swiss Alps.The earlier stages of cleavage formation are associated with little improvement in IC; the narrow range of IC associated with smooth cleavage is concluded to represent recrystallization and grain growth concurrent with cleavage formation.

Notes: Distinctive lithological associations and geological relationships, and initial geochronological results indicate the presence of an areally extensive region of reworked Archaean basement containing polymetamorphic granulites in the Rauer Group, East Antarctica.Structurally early metapelites from within this reworked region preserve complex and varied metamorphic histories which largely pre-date and bear no relation to a Late Proterozoic metamorphism generally recognized in this part of East Antarctica. In particular, magnesian metapelite rafts from Long Point record extreme peak P–T conditions of 10–12 kbar and 100–1050°C, and an initial decompression to 8 kbar at temperatures of greater than 900°C. Initial garnet–orthopyroxene–sillimanite assemblages contain the most magnesian (and pyrope-rich) garnets (XMg= 0.71) yet found in granulite facies rocks. A high-temperature decompressional P–T history is consistent with reaction textures in which the phase assemblages produced through garnet breakdown vary systematically with the initial garnet XMg composition, reflecting the intersection of different divariant reactions in rocks of varied composition as pressures decreased. This history is thought to relate to Archaean events, whereas a lower-temperature (c. 750–800°C) decompression to 5 kbar reflects Late Proterozoic reworking of these relict assemblages.The major Late Proterozoic (c. 1000 Ma) granulite facies metamorphism is recorded in a suite of younger Fe-rich metapelites and associated paragneisses in which syn- to post-deformational decompression, through 2–4 kbar from maximum recorded P–T conditions of 7–9 kbar and 800–850°C, is constrained by geothermobarometry and reaction textures. This P–T evolution is thought to reflect rapid tectonic collapse of crust previously thickened through collision.

Notes: In the southeastern Reynolds Range, central Australia, a low-P granulite facies metamorphism affected two sedimentary sequences: the Lander Rock Beds and the Reynolds Range Group. In the context of the whole of the Reynolds Range and the adjacent Anmatjira Range, this metamorphism is M3 in a sequence M1–4 that occurred over a period of 250 Ma. In particular, M1 affected the Lander Rock Beds prior to the deposition of the Reynolds Group. M3 has an areally restricted, high-grade area in the southeastern Reynolds Range, affecting both the Reynolds Range Group and the underlying Lander Rock Beds. The effects of M3 are characterized by spinel + quartz-bearing peak metamorphic assemblages in metapelites, which imply peak conditions of ≥750°C and 4.5 ± 1 kbar, and involved isobaric cooling or compression with cooling. It is concluded that one of a series of thermal perturbations caused by thinning of mantle lithosphere contemporaneous with crustal thickening was responsible for M3. In the southeastern Reynolds Range, evidence of both the unconformity between the two rock groups and previous metamorphism/deformation has been completely erased by recrystallization during M3–D3.

Notes: On the basis of fluid inclusion evidence, pervasive influx of deep-seated CO2-rich fluids has been invoked to account for mid- to upper amphibolite facies (M2B) metamorphism on the island of Naxos (Cyclades, Greece). In this paper, mineral devolatilization and melt equilibria are used to constrain the composition of both syn- and post-peak-M2B fluids in the deepest exposed levels of the metamorphic complex. The results indicate that peak-M2B fluids were spatially and compositionally heterogeneous throughout the high-grade core of the complex, whereas post-peak-M2B fluids were generally water-rich. The observed heterogeneities in syn-M2B fluid composition are inconsistent with pervasive CO2-flushing models invoked by previous workers on the basis of fluid inclusion evidence. It is likely that few CO2-rich fluid inclusions on Naxos preserve fluids trapped under peak metamorphic conditions. It is suggested that many of these inclusions have behaved as chemically open systems during the intense deformation that accompanied the uplift of the metamorphic complex. A similar process may explain the occurrence of some CO2-rich fluid inclusions in granulite facies rocks.

Notes: A detailed high-pressure experimental study of two mafic xenoliths, in which coexisting garnet and clinopyroxene (± plagioclase, spinel and olivine) were crystallized over a P–T range of 10–30 kbar and 950–1200°C, has revealed significant differences in temperatures from those estimated for coexisting garnets and clinopyroxenes using the Ellis & Green Fe–Mg exchange thermometer. The results show perfect matching at 30 kbar, 1150–1200°C, but increasing deviation at lower pressure and lower temperature, with the Ellis & Green calibration reaching a ΔT (overestimate) of c. 145°C at 10–12 kbar and 950°C. The grossular content of the garnet increases from c. 21 mol.% at 10 kbar to 26–31 mol.% at 30 kbar. These results confirm other recent experimental studies that show that the pressure correction, and possibly to a lesser extent the correction for grossular content, applied by Ellis & Green, are not appropriate for lower pressure conditions, and give estimated temperatures that are significantly high when applied to granulitic terranes formed at c. 10 kbar. The new reconnaissance results allow a graphical interpolation of a garnet–clinopyroxene geothermometer based on the Fe–Mg exchange reaction which should be applicable to assemblages formed under lower crustal conditions.

Notes: The Main Zone of the Hidaka Metamorphic Belt is an uplifted crustal section of island-arc type. The crust was formed during early Tertiary time, as a result of collision between two arc–trench systems of Cretaceous age. The crustal metamorphic sequence is divided into four metamorphic zones (I–IV), in which zone IV is in the granulite facies.A detailed study of the evolution of the Hidaka Belt, based on a revised P–T–t analysis of the metamorphic rocks, notably a newly found staurolite-bearing granulite, confirms a prograde isobaric heating path, after a supposed event of tectonic thickening of accretionary sedimentary and oceanic crustal rocks. During the peak metamorphic event (c. 53 Ma), the regional geothermal gradient attained 33–40° C km−1, and the highest P–T condition obtained from the lowest part of the granulite unit is 830° C, 7 kbar. In this part, XH2O of Gt–Opx–Cd gneiss is about 0.15 and that of Gt–Cd–Bt gneiss is 0.4. The P–T–XH2O condition of the granulite unit is well within a field where fluid-present partial melting of pelitic and greywacke metamorphic rocks takes place. This is in harmony with the restitic nature of the Gt–Opx–Cd gneiss in the lowest part of the granulite unit.The possibility that partial melting took place in the Main Zone is significant for the genesis of the peraluminous (S-type) granitic rocks within it. The S-type granitic rocks in this zone are Opx–Gt–Bt tonalite in the granulite zone, Gt–Cd–Bt tonalite in the amphibolite zone, and Cd–Bt–Mus tonalite in the Bt–Mus gneiss zone. The mineralogical and chemical nature of these strongly peraluminous tonalitic rocks permit them to be regarded as having been derived from S-type granitic magma generated by crustal anatexis of pelitic metamorphic rocks in deeper crust.

Notes: Abstract The enthalpy of reaction of plagioclase and pyroxene to produce garnet and quartz has been a major source of error in granulite geobarometry because of relatively uncertain enthalpy values available from high-temperature solution calorimetry and compiled indirectly from experimental phase equilibria. Recent, improved calorimetric measurements of ΔHR are shown to yield palaeopressures which are internally consistent between orthopyroxene and clinopyroxene calibrations for many South Indian granulites from the Archaean high-grade terranes of southern Karnataka and northern Tamil Nadu. This represents a considerable improvement over previous calibrations, which gave disparate results for the two independent barometers involving orthopyroxene and clinopyroxene, requiring a 2-kbar ‘empirical adjustment’to force agreement.Palaeopressures thus calculated for 30 well-documented two-pyroxene garnet granulites from South India give internally consistent pressures with a mean of 8.1°1.1 kbar at 750°C, consistent with the presence of both kyanite and sillimanite in many areas. Those samples for which garnet–pyroxene exchange thermometers give plausible granulite-range temperatures and whose minerals are minimally zoned give the best agreement of the two barometers. Samples which yield low palaeotemperatures and different rim and core compositions of minerals yield pressures for the orthopyroxene assemblage as much as 2 kbar lower than for the assemblage with clinopyroxene. This disparity probably represents post-metamorphic-peak re-equilibration. We conclude that considerable confidence may be placed in geobarometry of two-pyroxene granulites where apparent palaeotemperatures are in the granulite facies range (〉700°C) and where mineral zonation is minimal. Of the several possible sets of activity–composition relations in use, those constructed from analysis of phase equilibria give slightly higher palaeopressures and appear more consistent with analytical data from the Nilgiri Hills uplift, where kyanite is the only aluminium silicate reported to be stable in peak-metamorphic assemblages. The present results support a palaeopressure gradient, increasing generally from south to north, across the Nilgiri Hills as inferred by previous geobarometry.

Notes: Abstract A major episode of continental crust formation, associated with granulite facies metamorphism, occurred at 2.55–2.51 Ga and was related to accretional processes of juvenile crust. Dating of tonalitic–trondhjemitic, granitic gneisses and charnockites from the Krishnagiri area of South India indicates that magmatic protoliths are 2550–2530 ± 5 Ma, as shown by both U–Pb and 207Pb/206Pb single zircon methods. Monazite ages indicate high temperatures of cooling corresponding to conditions close to granulite facies metamorphism at 2510 ± 10 Ma. These data provide precise time constraints and Sr–Nd isotopes confirm the existence of late tonalitic–granodioritic juvenile gneisses at 2550 Ma. Pb single zircon ages from the older Peninsular gneisses (Gorur–Hassan area) are in agreement with some previous Sr ages and range between 3200 ± 20 and 3328 ± 10 Ma. These gneisses were derived from a 3.3–3.5-Ga mantle source as indicated from Nd isotopes. They did not participate significantly in the genesis of the 2.55-Ga juvenile magmas. All these data, together with previous work, suggest that the 2.51-Ga granulite facies metamorphism occurred near the contact of the ancient Peninsular gneisses and the 2.55–2.52-Ga ‘juvenile’tonalitic–trondhjemitic terranes during synaccretional processes (subduction, mantle plume?). Rb–Sr biotite ages between 2060 and 2340 Ma indicate late cooling probably related to the dextral major east–west shearing which displaced the 2.5-Ga juvenile terranes toward the west.

Notes: Abstract The formation of spiral-shaped inclusion trails (SSITs) is problematical, and the two viable models for their formation involve opposite shear senses along the foliation in which the porphyroblasts are growing. One model argues for porphyroblast rotation, with respect to a geographically fixed reference frame, whereas the other argues for no such porphyroblast rotation, but instead rotation of the matrix foliation around the porphyroblast. Thus, porphyroblasts with SSITs cannot be used as shear-sense indicators until it is conclusively determined which model best explains them.Any successful model must explain features associated with SSITs, including: (1) foliation truncation zones, (2) smoothly curving SSITs, (3) millipede microstructure, (4) total inclusion-trail curvature in median sections, (5) porphyroblasts with SSITs that have grown together, (6) evidence for relative porphyroblast displacements, (7) shear-sense indicators inside and outside porphyroblasts; (8) crenulations associated with porphyroblasts and (9) geometries in sections subparallel to spiral axes (axes of rotation). A detailed study of these features suggests that most, if not all, can be explained by both the rotational and non-rotational models, in spite of these models involving diametrically opposed movement senses. Therefore, geometrical analysis of individual porphyroblast microstructures may not determine which model best explains SSITs until the kinematics required to form these microstructures are better understood, in particular the sense of shear along a developing crenulation cleavage. Specific tests for determining the shear sense along crenulation cleavages are proposed, and results of such tests may conclusively resolve the debate over how SSITs form.

Notes: Abstract The Mesozoic Murihiku and Waipapa terranes are two accretionary wedges of linked forearc and trench sediments, respectively, that were juxtaposed in the early Cretaceous.Late Triassic to late Jurassic Murihiku terrane volcaniclastic sediments are folded into a regional syncline and have been diagenetically altered. There is a general relationship between zeolite occurrence, clay mineralogy, vitrinite reflectance and stratigraphic position. Youngest Jurassic sediments contain heulandite, analcime and stilbite, whereas late Triassic to mid-Jurassic sediments have laumontite and heulandite (in detail the zeolite distribution is complicated). Tuffaceous horizons on the eastern limb of the syncline are calcitized rather than zeolitized. Post-diagenetic fractures associated with uplift are laumontite-filled. The inferred geothermal gradient is c. 15° C km−1.The Waipapa terrane is an accretionary complex dominated by imbricated terrigenous sediments of Triassic and Jurassic age with enclosed Permian to Jurassic pelagic sediments and basalts. Late Jurassic sediments are massive volaniclastic sandstones. The sediments are non-foliated, and metamorphic minerals in the massive sandstones have crystallized in specific domains. The observed metamorphic succession of prehnite-pumpellyite and pumpellyite-actinolite facies assemblages was overprinted in the imbricated rocks during a thermal event that was late in the deformation sequence and broadly coincident with hydraulic fracturing and veining.The metamorphic successions in the two terranes and their relationships to structural features are in excellent accord with accretionary complex models.

Notes: Abstract The Siluro-Devonian Waits River Formation of north-east Vermont was deformed, intruded by plutons and regionally metamorphosed during the Devonian Acadian Orogeny. Five metamorphic zones were mapped based on the mineralogy of carbonate rocks. From low to high grade, these are: (1) ankerite-albite, (2) ankerite-oligoclase, (3) biotite, (4) amphibole and (5) diopside zones. Pressure was near 4.5kbar and temperature varied from c. 450° C in the ankerite-albite zone to c. 525° C in the diopside zone. Fluid composition for all metamorphic zones was estimated from mineral equilibria. Average calculated χco2[= CO2/(CO2+ H2O)] of fluid in equilibrium with the marls increases with increasing grade from 0.05 in the ankerite-oligoclase zone, to 0.25 in the biotite zone and to 0.44 in the amphibole zone. In the diopside zone, χCO2 decreases to 0.06.Model prograde metamorphic reactions were derived from measured modes, mineral chemistry, and whole-rock chemistry. Prograde reactions involved decarbonation with an evolved volatile mixture of χCO2 〉 0.50. The χCO2 of fluid in equilibrium with rocks from all zones, however, was generally 〈0.40. This difference attests to the infiltration of a reactive H2O-rich fluid during metamorphism. Metamorphosed carbonate rocks from the formation suggests that both heat flow and pervasive infiltration of a reactive H2O-rich fluid drove mineral reactions during metamorphism. Average time-integrated volume fluxes (cm3 fluid/cm2 rock), calculated from the standard equation for coupled fluid flow and reaction in porous media, are (1) ankerite-oligoclase zone: c. 1 × 104; (2) biotite zone: c. 3 × 104; (3) amphibole zone: c. 10 × 104; and diopside zone: c. 60 × 104. The increase in calculated flux with increasing grade is at least in part the result of internal production of volatiles from prograde reactions in pelitic schists and metacarbonate rocks within the Waits River Formation.The mapped pattern of time-integrated fluxes indicates that the Strafford-Willoughby Arch and the numerous igneous intrusions in the field area focused fluid flow during metamorphism. Many rock specimens in the diopside zone experienced extreme alkali depletion and also record low χCO2. Metamorphic fluids in equilibrium with diopside zone rocks may therefore represent a mixture of acid, H2O-rich fluids given off by the crystallizing magmas, and CO2-H2O fluids produced by devolatilization reactions in the host marls. Higher fluxes and different fluid compositions recorded near the plutons suggest that pluton-driven hydrothermal cells were local highs in the larger regional metamorphic hydrothermal system.

Notes: Abstract Natural, pure CO2 inclusions in quartz and olivine (c. Fo90) were exposed to controlled fH2 conditions at T= 718–728°C and Ptotal= 2 kbar; their compositions were monitored (before and after exposures) by microsampling Raman spectroscopy (MRS) and microthermometry. In both minerals exposed at the graphite–methane buffer (fH2= 73 bar), fluid speciations record the diffusion of hydrogen into the inclusions. In quartz, room-temperature products in euhedral isolated (EI type) inclusions are carbonic phases with molar compositions of c. CO2(60) + CH4(40) plus graphite (Gr) and H2O, whereas anhedral inclusions along secondary fractures (AS type) are Gr-free and contain H2O plus carbonic phases with compositions in the range c. CO2(60) + CH4(40) to CO2(10) + CH4(90). EI type inclusions in olivine evolved to c. CO2(90–95) + CH4(5–10) without Gr, whereas AS type inclusions have a range of compositions from CO2(90) + CH4(10) ± Gr to CH4(50) + H2(50) ± Gr; neither H2O nor any hydrous species was detected by optical microscopy or MRS in the olivine-hosted products. Differences in composition between and among the texturally distinct populations of inclusions in both minerals probably arise from variations in initial fluid densities, as all inclusions apparently equilibrated with the ambient fH2. These relations suggest that compositional variability among inclusions in a given natural sample does not require the entrapment of multiple generations of fluids. In addition, the absence of H2O in the olivine-hosted inclusions would require the extraction of oxygen from the fluids, in which case re-equilibration mechanisms may be dependent on the composition and structure of the host mineral.Many of the same samples were re-exposed to identical P–T conditions using Ar as the pressure medium, yielding ambient fH2= 0.06 bar. In most inclusions, the carbonic fluids returned to pure CO2 and graphite persisted in the products. Reversal of the mechanisms from the prior exposure at fH2= 73 bar did not occur in any inclusions but the AS types in olivine, in which minor CO2 was produced at the expense of CH4 and/or graphite. The observed non-reversibility of previous mechanisms may be attributed to: (1) slower fluid–solid reactions compared to reactions in the homogeneous fluid phase; (2) depressed activities of graphite due to poor ordering; and/or (3) low ambient fO2 at the conditions of the second run.

Notes: Books reviewed in this article: Directing Ecological Succession. James O. Luken Soil Restoration: Advances in Soil Science, vol. 17. Rattan Lai and B. A. Stewart, editors

Notes: The Pinelands National Reserve and UNESCO Biosphere encompass a large portion of southern New Jersey's Pine Barrens. Within the core preservation zone of these Reserves lies the Warren Grove Weapons Range, a military installation where exercises during the past 50 years have devastated portions of the indigenous pygmy pine-oak forest. In 1987, restoration efforts were initiated to identify materials and techniques that promote a diverse and productive native plant community atop drastically disturbed portions of the range. We used trial plantings to examine fertilizer and sewage compost fertility amendments, the effect of different native plant mixtures (including the dwarfed race of pitch pine, Pinus rigida), the influence of the ectomycorrhizal fungus Pisolithus tinctorius on the growth of pines and associated species, and mulch applications to conserve moisture and add organic matter. Following two growing seasons, test plantings exhibited 25% of the vegetation production found in the surrounding pine-oak community, 50% canopy closure, and levels of diversity comparable to the reference site. Maximum biomass and cover were achieved following the application of 16 Mg/ha compost and the establishment of pitch pine seedlings. Pitch pine was the dominant species in all plots where it was planted, with herbaceous species comprising the balance of the developing vegetation. Amendments of seeded grasses, P. tinctorius, and mulch influenced species composition but failed to enhance total plant production. We recommend restoring drastically disturbed sites in the pine plains with cultural input of compost to the spoils and planting of pitch pines and other woody species to accelerate the structural blending of reforested sites with the surrounding native vegetation.

Notes: A general model is presented describing ecosystem degradation to help decide when restoration, rehabilitation, or reallocation should be the preferred response. The latter two pathways are suggested when one or more “thresholds of irreversibility” have been crossed in the course of ecosystem degradation, and when “passive” restoration to a presumed predisturbance condition is deemed impossible. The young but burgeoning field of ecological restoration, and the older field of rehabilitation and sustainable range management of arid and semiarid lands (ASAL), are found to have much in common, especially compared with the reallocation of lands, which is often carried out without reference to pre-existing ecosystems. After clarifying some basic terminology, we present 18 vital ecosystem attributes for evaluating stages of degradation and planning experiments in the restoration or rehabilitation of degraded ecosystems. Finally, we offer 10 hypotheses concerning ecological restoration and rehabilitation as they apply to ASAL and perhaps to all terrestrial ecosystems.

Notes: Experiments were conducted in the field and the greenhouse to determine whether vesicular-arbus-cular mycorrhizae affect growth and competition between the native perennial Stipa pulchra and the introduced annual Avena barbata. Soils in the greenhouse were steam-sterilized, and in the field they were treated with the fungicide benomyl. Stipa pulchra showed decreased shoot dry mass and increased root mass when inoculated, while A. barbata showed the opposite response, increased shoot mass and decreased root mass. Mycorrhizal A. barbata also produced more seeds. Mycorrhizae did not alleviate the negative effects of competition of A. barbata on S. pulchra, as has been demonstrated for other pairs of weedy and nonweedy species. The same three species of mycorrhizal fungi were present in annual and perennial grasslands, but their relative composition was different. When inoculum from the two grassland types were tested in the field, the fungal species began to revert within five months to the species composition found in grasslands of the host plant. This indicates that, once annual grassland has been revegetated with the native S. pulchra, the original fungal species composition may return relatively quickly. Where A. barbata dominates, inoculation with mycorrhizal fungi alone will not suffice for establishing S. pulchra, and the usual practices for control of weed competition need to be employed.

Notes: Herbaria are potentially important repositories of living seeds that could be useful for recovery of rare plant species. To examine this capacity, we tested seed germination of rare milkweed (Asclepias) and milkvetch (Astragalus) species representing different collection dates and different herbaria. These groups have contrasting seed characteristics, with greater potential for longevity in the nonpermeable hard-coated milkvetch seeds. Twelve-year-old Asclepias lanuginosa seeds failed to germinate. However, we achieved 45% germination from three-year-old Asclepias meadii seeds, but germination dropped to 0% after ages of four to five years. Astragalus neglectus seeds germinated from 97-, 48-, and 28-year-old herbarium specimens, and Astragalus tennesseensis seeds germinated from a four-year-old collection. Seedlings produced from these experiments were incorporated into ex situ garden populations for recovery or restoration of rare species populations. Different herbarium pest control techniques may have significant bearing on the viability of seeds stored on herbarium specimens. Microwaving can cause precipitous loss of seed viability, while deep-freezing appears to allow some seeds to remain viable. Potentially live seeds of rare species should be stored under conditions that enhance their long-term viability.

Notes: The microbial community in a soil stripped and stored during opencast coal mining was analyzed. There were significant effects of soil disturbance on the microbial community: in particular, there were large decreases in the total microbial biomass, as determined by ATP analysis, and numbers of fungal propagules as a result of the store construction process, but there was no significant effect on the numbers of bacteria. During the subsequent months of storage there was a flush in the numbers of bacteria, with gram-negative bacteria showing an increase of nearly 700% in comparison to the control. During this time there was a steady accumulation in the amount of ammonium in the deepest part of the soil store, indicating the onset of anaerobiosis. These changes may be interpreted in terms of lifestyle strategy theory (Grime 1979). The bacteria exhibit behavior typical of R-strategists, or ruderal species, taking advantage of the nutrients made available by the death of fungal biomass during store construction. Fungi respond as C-strategists, or competitors, and they are severely affected by store construction-and unable to persist deep in the anaerobic part of the store. In contrast, anaerobes, S-strategists or stresstolerators, are able to survive under the same conditions. These changes have serious implications for the restoration of systems using stored topsoil as a resource. The microbial population has been altered in terms of its size and composition. Many of the fungi required for adequate breakdown and incorporation of organic matter will be absent, and the soils will be generally poor in microbial biomass. This will lead to inadequate nutrient cycling and poor soil structural stability, two factors essential for the restoration of a self-sustaining ecosystem.

Notes: In order to extend quarrying near Thrislington Plantation, County Durham, England, 8.5 ha of magnesian limestone grassland was relocated over a period of eight years from October 1982. The effects of this on the flora and invertebrate fauna were examined within the Festuca-Helianthemum community at five plots relocated at different times. Plants were sampled with a point-quadrat, and invertebrates by pitfall trapping. Comparisons were made between age of the relocation, numbers of species and individuals, and diversity of flora and invertebrates. The plots were examined using the percentage similarity measure. The plots showed an initial change in some aspects of community structure for flora and invertebrate fauna, followed by a “recovery” period. This was particularly evident in the numbers of species and species diversity of plants and in the numbers of individuals and species diversity of invertebrates. Bare ground, left by the relocation process, was still evident between relocated turfs in the early plots, but it was successfully colonized by resident species in later plots. These results have implications for the future management of this and similar sites, particularly with respect to the emphasis placed on subsequent monitoring and the need to consider invertebrate faunas when implementing management strategies.

Notes: 〈blockFixed type="quotation"〉We now recognize that humans have the power to alter the planet irreversibly, on a global scale. Humans must be concerned with the condition of the planet that is passed to future generations./〉

Notes: Bidders in hostile takeovers have colluded in five separate instances. It is found that these collusive agreements did not affect the target's price significantly. A model is developed to explain this observation. A welfare analysis indicates that a positive probability of cartel formation can be socially beneficial and may or may not be beneficial to the target's shareholders, depending on the process generating takeover attempts. This sheds light on the existing policy debate concerning regulations of collusive agreements. An analysis of the existing case law is provided, which indicates that such collusive arrangements are legal at present.

Notes: 〈blockFixed type="quotation"〉The Directors of … Companies … being the managers rather of other people's money than of their own, it cannot well be expected that they should watch over it with the same anxious vigilance with which the partners in private copartnery frequently watch over their own.—Adam Smith, 1776, Wealth of Nations

Notes: Abstract In granulite facies metapelitic rocks in the Musgrave Complex, central Australia, reaction between S1 garnet and sillimanite involves the development in S2 of both garnet + cordierite + hercynitic spinel + biotite and hercynitic spinel + cordierite + sillimanite + biotite. The S2 assemblages occur either in coronas and symplectites, mainly around garnet, or, in rocks in which S2 is more strongly developed, as recrystallized assemblages. Ignoring the presence of biotite and ilmenite, the mineral textures can be accounted for qualitatively by a consideration of the model system FeO-MgO-Al2O3-SiO2 (FMAS); the textural relationships accord with decompression accompanying the change from S1 to S2. However, since biotite and ilmenite are involved in the assemblages, the parageneses are better accounted for in terms of equilibria in the expanded model system K2O-FeO-MgO-Al2O3-SiO2-H2-TiO2-Fe2O3 (KFMASHTO), i.e. AFM + TiO2+ Fe2O3. The coronas reflect the tectonic unroofing of at least part of the Musgrave Complex from peak S1 conditions of about 8 kbar to S2 conditions of about 4 kbar.

Notes: Abstract During the Eocene-Oligocene, the Indian plate collided with the Kohistan arc along the Main Mantle Thrust (MMT) zone. The structure of the Lower Swat rock sequence, on the Indian plate directly south of the MMT, is a dome with a basement of granitic gneiss and quartz-rich schist unconformably overlain by amphibolitic and calcareous schist. The earliest superposed small-scale folds (F1 & F2) represent a progressive F1/F2 deformation that is associated with a single set of WSW-vergent large-scale folds (termed F2). These folds are inferred to have developed during oblique, WSW-directed overthrusting of the MMT suture complex onto the Lower Swat rock sequence. Metamorphism began during F1/F2 as indicated by an S1 foliation that developed during biotite-grade metamorphism. S1 is preserved as a relict texture in porphyroblasts that grew during a subsequent interkinematic phase during garnet- and higher grade metamorphism. The dominant, regional foliation (S2) developed following the interkinematic phase. S2 is associated with transposition of S1 and rotation or dismemberment of porphyroblasts. Annealing recrystallization followed S2 and continued during F3 thereby destroying or masking possible pre-existing stretching fabrics. Superposed F3 folds are upright and open with N-S axial trends. They may correlate with early doming of the Lower Swat rock sequence and with strike-slip displacement in the northern part of the MMT zone, north of the Lower Swat area. F3 was followed by retrograde metamorphism and development of E-W-trending, S-vergent F4 folds. F4 may be associated with a final phase of southward directed thrusting and inactivity in the MMT zone. Correlation of published 40Ar/39Ar ages with the metamorphic fabrics suggests that F1/F2 and F3 occurred in the Eocene, and that F4 developed in the Oligocene. F4 is the earliest indication of southward verging structures on this part of the Indian plate.

Notes: Granulites exposed in the Reinbolt Hills, East Antarctica, are part of the extensive Late Proterozoic granulite complex of East Antarctica, which includes the Rauer Group to the east and the northern Prince Charles Mountains to the west. The deformation history includes three pervasive deformation phases. No chemical or mineralogical distinction between these phases has been detected and this is interpreted to be the result of complete re-equilibration at the end of the third deformation phase. Two late deformation phases post-date the metamorphism and record a medium-temperature cooling path. A short segment of the P–T path of these rocks was inferred from mineral reactions that occurred during these late deformation phases. The path passes from 800°C, 7 kbar to 690°C, 5 kbar, indicating strong decompression, which is typical of a thrust-dominated crustal thickening followed by rapid erosion or extensional collapse.

Notes: Mafic granulite, garnet amphibolite and charnockite occur in the southwest Swedish part of the Baltic Shield. This part is generally considered to be the continuation of the Grenville collisional belt in Canada. The area with granulite facies rocks, the Southwest Swedish Granulite Region (SGR), is considerably larger than previously thought. The SGR is bounded to the east and west by two major tectonic zones. The first quantitative age data and P–T determinations for the high-grade metamorphism in the SGR are presented.Conventional geothermobarometry was applied to mafic granulites from five localities. The estimated P–T conditions for the peak of metamorphism range from 705°C and 8.1 kbar at Hallandsås in the south, to 770°C and 10.5 kbar at Ullared in the north (medium- to high-P granulite facies conditions). Sm–Nd geochronology on minerals from the mafic granulites at Hallandsås and Ullared give late Sveconorwegian (Grenville) ages of 907 ± 12 and 916 ± 11 Ma for the high-grade metamorphism, which is considerably younger than previously thought.Our results stress the hitherto underestimated importance of the late Sveconorwegian high-grade metamorphism in the southwestern part of the Baltic Shield.