ALBERT

Description: Purpose Water footprint is expected as a tool to identify critical and effective points for reducing the impact of water use through the entire life cycle of products, services, and organizations. The purpose of this study is to develop a water footprint inventory database that makes it possible to account the water intensities of all the Japanese goods and services with a differentiation for the types of water resources and the forms of water uses. Methods An input-output analysis was applied to establish a comprehensive database covering all of the Japanese goods and services. The amount of water consumption in each sector was estimated by modeling (for agricultural goods) and determined based on the uses of input water according to the statistic reports and hearing survey results (for other sectors). The intensities of direct water input or consumption in each sector were calculated by dividing the amount of water input or consumption with the domestic production amount for each sector. Based on the input-output analysis by using Leontief’s inverse matrix, the intensities of water use and consumption from cradle to gate were estimated for all goods and services in 403 sectors of Japan. Results and discussion The intensities of water input and consumption in the primary sectors of industry from cradle to gate showed large values and high dependency on rain water as the sources of input water. While the water input intensities in secondary sector of industry were relatively higher than those in tertiary sector of industry, the water consumption intensities generally showed larger reduction in secondary sectors in comparison with those in tertiary sectors due to the utilization of recycling water. The results of comparing the intensities in this study with previous studies showed some differences due to the consideration of site-specific conditions in production and the temporal resolution for the calculation of consumed amount in crop production. Conclusions By considering the site-specific conditions, the intensities were developed as the datasets suitable for water footprint of products, services, and organizations in Japan. While this database would be expected to be applied to the implementation of water footprint, the reflection of the effects by imported goods and services through international trade needs to be conducted in the future study for improving the preciseness and reliability of the results of water footprint.

Description: Purpose Nowadays, some engine components subjected to mechanical stress and high temperature are made of thermoplastic materials. The air intake manifold (AIM) is one of these parts. In the past, AIM was made of aluminium or magnesium alloy, while today, engine manufacturers prefer to use lighter materials such as nylon reinforced with glass fibre. The scope of this work is to assess from an environmental point of view the adoption of two alternative thermoplastic materials (polyamide reinforced with 30 % of glass fibre and polypropylene reinforced with 35 % of glass fibre) for the construction of a Magneti Marelli ® AIM and the introduction in the production stage of new additional design solutions (scraps recycling and brass inserts elimination). The outcome of the paper would contribute both to establish a baseline for comparison with other composite AIMs and to improve the knowledge of materials and manufacturing technologies related to the product. Methods The study has been performed applying the LCA methods as described in the ISO standards 14040 and 14044. The life cycle inventory (LCI) captures the whole AIM life-cycle (LC) subdivided in four stages: materials supply, production, use and end-of-life (EoL). For the LCI data collection, primary data have been provided by the AIM manufacturer, while available databases have been used as source for secondary data. Unlike previous LCAs regarding AIM, the environmental profile is assessed through a broader range of life cycle impact assessment (LCIA) impact categories as provided by the CML 2001 framework in its November 2010 release. Results and discussion The results show that for both the polyamide composite and the polypropylene composite, the AIM the most influential LC stages are use and materials supply. Such outcome is due to the considerable quantity of fuel consumed during the whole LC and the energy/resources consumption involved by the raw materials extraction and production processes. The substitution of polyamide composite with polypropylene composite reduces the potential environmental impacts for all the categories and for each stage of the AIM LC. Contribution analysis by LC stage of potential environmental impact evidences that the change of material involves a remarkable increase of the use stage quota with no notable mutation of production and EoL contributions. The introduction of scraps recycling and brass inserts elimination entails no significant impact reduction for all the categories with the only exception of abiotic depletion potential (ADP e ). Conclusions The substitution of polyamide composite with polypropylene composite involves considerable reduction of the AIM LC impact, while the introduction of scraps recycling and brass inserts elimination entails negligible effects.

Description: Purpose Livestock already use most global agricultural land, whereas the demand for animal-source food (ASF) is expected to increase. To address the contribution of livestock to global food supply, we need a measure for land use efficiency of livestock systems. Methods Existing measures capture different aspects of the debate about land use efficiency of livestock systems, such as plant productivity and the efficiency of converting feed, especially human-inedible feed, into animal products. So far, the suitability of land for cultivation of food crops has not been accounted for. Our land use ratio (LUR) includes all above-mentioned aspects and yields a realistic insight into land use efficiency of livestock systems. LUR is defined as the maximum amount of human-digestible protein (HDP) derived from food crops on all land used to cultivate feed required to produce 1 kg ASF over the amount of HDP in that 1 kg ASF. We illustrated our concept for three case systems. Results and discussion The LUR for the case of laying hens equaled 2.08, implying that land required to produce 1 kg HDP from laying hens could directly yield 2.08 kg HDP from human food crops. For dairy cows, the LUR was 2.10 when kept on sandy soils and 0.67 when kept on peat soils. The LUR for dairy cows on peat soils was lower compared to cows on sandy soils because land used to grow grass and grass silage for cows on peats was unsuitable for direct production of food crops. A LUR 〈1.0 is considered efficient in terms of global food supply and implies that animals produce more HDP per square metre than crops. Conclusions Values 〈1.0 demonstrate that livestock produce HDP more efficiently than crops. Such livestock systems (with a LUR 〈 1.0), therefore, do have a role in future food supply and therefore contribute to food security. Our LUR offers identification of livestock production systems that contribute to global food supply, i.e. systems that value land with low opportunity costs for arable production and/or by-products from crop cultivation or the food or energy industry.

Description: Purpose Responsible sourcing of metals is characterized as an approach for life cycle management (LCM) and sustainable supply chain management (SSCM) of social issues. The focus is on the supply of “conflict minerals”—tin, tantalum, tungsten, and gold (3TG)—whose mining and trade are implicated in conflict and severe social conditions in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). Downstream manufacturers are using compliance strategies to reach multiple tiers and long distances into product chains to buy conflict-free sources of these metals from mines, smelters, and refineries. Methods The research uses qualitative methods and public documents to compare 16 conflict mineral programs. A theoretical framework in three dimensions guided the enquiry into program governance, program standards, and certification processes. Additional empirical analysis of the conflict-free sourcing program, the largest and most central industry-led effort on conflict minerals, was supported by confidential access to audit reports, company policies, and management procedures on more than 140 metallurgical facilities. Results and discussion In fewer than 4 years, conflict-free sourcing programs have impacted global 3TG metal supply chains, as indicated by pricing and significant producer compliance. Electronics, jewelry, and other manufacturers—many influenced by US conflict mineral regulation—are “pulling” metals markets for conflict-free sourcing. Private standard programs focus on product chain chokepoints to support efficient engagement: a limited number of 3TG facilities that are influenced to implement “responsibility management systems,” practice conflict-free sourcing, and undergo compliance audits. Some supply chains operate as closed pipelines along the full product chain from mine to end-product. Tantalum has been most successful as about 95 % of producers are compliant; however, for gold, in particular, the scale of compliance is challenged. Conclusions Downstream manufacturing industries are “governing at a distance” the management practices of upstream raw material producers. For LCM, responsible sourcing may be applicable to product chains with other metals and commodities. For SSCM, conflict-free sourcing indicates how compliance and supplier development strategies can penetrate multiple tiers into supply chains to address social issues in developing countries. Future research is needed on understanding more on supplier companies and their motivations and on sustainability performance outcomes for the conflict mineral problem.

Description: Purpose This paper aims to clarify the application of a land-use baseline in attributional life cycle assessment (ALCA) for product systems involving land use, through consideration of the fundamental purpose of ALCA. Currently, there is no clear view in the literature whether a baseline should be used when accounting for environmentally relevant physical flows related to land use. Methods An extensive search of literature was carried out using the key terms ‘attributional life cycle assessment’ and ‘attributional LCA’ in the Google Scholar web search engine. Approximately 700 publications were reviewed and summarised according to their type and scope, relevance of land use, key statements and references given for ALCA, and arguments for and against using a baseline in ALCA. Based on the literature review and supplementary literature references, a critical discussion on the use of a baseline and determination of the most appropriate land-use baseline in ALCA is provided. Results and discussion A few studies clearly argued that only absolute (observable) flows without a baseline are to be inventoried in ALCA, while the majority of the studies did not make any clear statement for or against. On the other hand, a land-use baseline was explicitly applied or proposed in a minority of the studies only, despite the fact that we classified land use as highly relevant for the majority of the studies reviewed. Furthermore, the LCA guidelines reviewed give contradictory recommendations. The most cited studies for the definition of ALCA provide general rules for selecting processes based on observable flows but do not argue that observable flows necessarily describe the environmentally relevant physical flows. Conclusions We conclude that a baseline is required to separate the studied parts of the technosphere from natural processes and to describe the impact of land use on ecosystem quality, such as carbon sequestration and biodiversity. The most coherent baseline for human-induced land-use in ALCA is natural regeneration. As the natural-regeneration baseline has typically been excluded, may vary bio-geographically and temporally, and is subject to uncertainties, case studies applying it should be performed so that implications can be studied and evaluated. This is particularly important for agricultural and forestry systems, such as food, feed, fibre, timber and biofuels.

Description: Purpose Integrated agriculture and aquaculture (IAA), as typified by the mulberry dike-pond system (DPS) of the Pearl River delta of southern China, is often cited as an example of sustainable intensified production due to its characteristic closed loop recycling of nutrients. In this study, we tackle two issues that have been hardly addressed in previous analyses of aquaculture production, greenhouse gas emissions (GHGe) from the pond and the role of labour. Methods Previous assessments led us to revisit the sustainability of the DPS system as a model for a well-studied IAA system using a life cycle assessment (LCA) methodology. Our study quantifies on-farm CH 4 and N 2 O emissions and indirect emissions embedded in inputs, using the global warming potential (GWP) metric. To model the indirect impact of the high labour requirements of the system, a simple methodology based on metabolizable energy requirements is proposed. Results and discussion Our GHGe assessment suggests that using fish ponds to treat organic waste results in higher net emissions than alternative waste processing options (e.g. composting), even when the co-production of fish is accounted for. The majority of total system GWP 100 (97 %) can be attributed to methane from the fertilised ponds. Food required to meet labour requirements plays an important role, from 11 to 22 % of total environmental impact. Conclusions Methane from semi-intensive ponds fertilised with organic waste appears to be a significant source of GWP, calling into question the environmental sustainability of IAA systems such as the mulberry DPS. Improving sustainability in such systems will require better understanding of GHGe from waste-fed aquaculture ponds, notably with respect to on-farm N 2 O and CH 4.

Description: Purpose The purpose of this study was to analyze the environmental trade-offs of cascading reuse of electric vehicle (EV) lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) in stationary energy storage at automotive end-of-life. Methods Two systems were jointly analyzed to address the consideration of stakeholder groups corresponding to both first (EV) and second life (stationary energy storage) battery applications. The environmental feasibility criterion was defined by an equivalent-functionality lead-acid (PbA) battery. A critical methodological challenge addressed was the allocation of environmental impacts associated with producing LIBs across the EV and stationary use systems. The model also tested sensitivity to parameters such as the fraction of battery cells viable for reuse, service life of refurbished cells, and PbA battery efficiency. Results and discussion From the perspective of EV applications, cascading reuse of an LIB in stationary energy storage can reduce net cumulative energy demand and global warming potential by 15 % under conservative estimates and by as much as 70 % in ideal refurbishment and reuse conditions. When post-EV LIB cells were compared directly to a new PbA system for stationary energy storage, the reused cells generally had lower environmental impacts, except in scenarios where very few of the initial battery cells and modules could be reused and where reliability was low (e.g., life span of 1 year or less) in the secondary application. Conclusions These findings demonstrate that EV LIB reuse in stationary application has the potential for dual benefit—both from the perspective of offsetting initial manufacturing impacts by extending battery life span as well as avoiding production and use of a less-efficient PbA system. It is concluded that reuse decisions and diversion of EV LIBs toward suitable stationary applications can be based on life cycle centric studies. However, technical feasibility of these systems must still be evaluated, particularly with respect to the ability to rapidly analyze the reliability of EV LIB cells, modules, or packs for refurbishment and reuse in secondary applications.

Description: Purpose There is an apparent convention within both consequential and attributional life cycle assessment (LCA) to assume a 1:1 substitution ratio between functionally equivalent product systems. However, this convention may not be compatible with the purpose of consequential LCA, which is to model the actual consequences of the decision at hand. This paper explores the implications of the convention using the illustrative example of a 1 % tax on whole milk. Methods A consequential LCA which assumes a 1:1 substitution ratio between two functionally equivalent product systems is compared with the results of an analysis that estimates the actual substitution ratio based on empirical data. Cross-price elasticities of demand for possible competitor products are modelled using a linear approximated almost ideal demand system (LA-AIDS). Results and discussion The results show a 1:0.52 substitution ratio between whole and low fat milk, rather than a 1:1 substitution ratio. Depending on the consequential LCA values for whole and low fat milk, the 1:1 convention could underestimate the greenhouse gas emission reductions from the tax by over 400 %. Conclusions The results suggest that it is highly important to model actual substitution ratios between competing product systems in order to capture the consequences of the decision at hand. As a subsidiary contribution, the paper also shows the importance of modelling the displacement effects of milk fat co-products, which are generally not considered in the existing LCA literature on milk.

Description: Purpose Capture fisheries are the only industrial-scale harvesting of a wild resource for food. Temporal variability in environmental performance of fisheries has only recently begun to be explored, but only between years, not within a year. Our aim was to better understand the causes of temporal variability within and between years and to identify improvement options through management at a company level and in fisheries management. Methods We analyzed the variability in broad environmental impacts of a demersal freeze trawler targeting cod, haddock, saithe, and shrimp, mainly in the Norwegian Sea and in the Barents Sea. The analysis was based on daily data for fishing activities between 2011 and 2014 and the functional unit was a kilo of landing from one fishing trip. We used biological indicators in a novel hierarchic approach, depending on data availability, to quantify biotic impacts. Landings were categorized as target (having defined target reference points) or bycatch species (classified as threatened or as data-limited). Indicators for target and bycatch impacts were quantified for each fishing trip, as was the seafloor area swept. Results and discussion No significant difference in fuel use was found between years, but variability was considerable within a year, i.e., between fishing trips. Trips targeting shrimp were more fuel intensive than those targeting fish, due to a lower catch rate. Steaming to and from port was less important for fuel efficiency than steaming between fishing locations. A tradeoff was identified between biotic and abiotic impacts. Landings classified as main target species generally followed the maximum sustainable yield (MSY) framework, and proportions of threatened species were low, while proportions of data-limited bycatch were larger. This improved considerably when reference points were defined for saithe in 2014. Conclusions The variability between fishing trips shows that there is room for improvement through management. Fuel use per landing was strongly influenced by target species, fishing pattern, and fisheries management. Increased awareness about the importance of onboard decision-making can lead to improved performance. This approach could serve to document performance over time helping fishing companies to better understand the effect of their daily and more long-term decision-making on the environmental performance of their products. Recommendations Fishing companies should document their resource use and production on a detailed level. Fuel use should be monitored as part of the management system. Managing authorities should ensure that sufficient data is available to evaluate the sustainability of exploitation levels of all harvested species.

Description: Purpose Ecuador is an important player in the global tuna fishing and processing industry: The Ecuadorian industrial tuna fleet represents 17 % of the global tuna purse seiner fleet, and it is the second largest tuna processing country after Thailand. The fishing and processing operations of one of the largest vertically integrated tuna processing firms in Ecuador were evaluated regarding their environmental impacts and assumed representative of the Ecuadorian tuna processing industry. Results were compared with those of other international fish processing and other sources of animal protein for human consumption. Directions are finally identified toward reducing environmental impacts of both the tuna fishery and processing industry. Methods Detailed operational fishery and processing data was collected from a representative Ecuadorian tuna processing firm, and the life cycle assessment framework applied to it for hotspot identification. Two functional units were used: 1 t of final product (for canned, pouched, vacuum bagged and mean products) and 1 t of “fish in product”, which includes all process losses and normalises the final product/raw fish ratios among the different processing routes analysed. The ReCiPe impact assessment method was used. Results and discussion In the period 2012–2013, the studied sub-fleet featured a fuel use intensity of 835 L per landed tonne, which was 235 % higher than reported values for all tuna landings in the Pacific Ocean in 2009. Reasons for such underperformance may include inter-annual variations in tuna catchability and the fact that fuels are generally subsidised in Ecuador, and thus skippers perhaps do not apply sufficient fuel-saving strategies. The main contributors to impacts associated with tuna processing were the provision of tinplate cans (58.0 % of the ReCiPe single score) and fuel use by the fishery (22.6 %). Ecuadorian tuna products feature environmental impacts generally higher than those of other fish processing industries worldwide, yet lower than those of many alternative sources of fish and land animal protein. Conclusions Efforts to reduce environmental impacts of Ecuadorian tuna processing should focus on the fuel performance of the providing fleet, and on the container technology. Increased use of larger tinplate cans, aluminium cans, or other non-metal container technologies (e.g. pouches and retort cups) would decrease environmental impacts of tuna processing. The sources of relative inefficiency observed for the Ecuadorian tuna fleet should be thoroughly investigated. Possible solutions could involve applying fuel-saving strategies.

Description: Purpose This study assesses life cycle greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, energy use, and freshwater use in wine grape production across common vineyard management scenarios in two representative growing regions (Napa and Lodi) of the US state of California. California hosts 90 % of US grape growing area, and demand for GHG emissions estimates of crops has increased due to consumer interest and policies such as California’s Global Warming Solutions Act. Methods The study’s scope includes the annual cycle for wine grape production, beginning at raw material extraction for production of vineyard inputs and ending at delivery of wine grapes to the winery gate, and excludes capital infrastructure. Two hundred forty production scenarios were modeled based on data collected from land owners, vineyard managers, and third-party vineyard management companies. Thirty additional in-person interviews with growers throughout Napa and Lodi were also conducted to identify the diversity of farming practices, site characteristics, and yields (among other factors) across 90 vineyards. These vineyards represent a cross-section of the regional variability in soil, climate, and landscape used for wine grape production. Results and discussion Energy use and global warming potential (GWP) per metric ton (t) across all 240 production scenarios range between 1669 and 8567 MJ and 87 and 548 kg CO 2 e. Twelve scenarios were selected for closer inspection to facilitate comparison of the two regions and grower practices. Comparison by region shows energy use, GWP, and water use for typical practices were more than twice as great in Napa (6529 MJ/t, 456 kg CO 2 e/t, and 265 m 3 H 2 O/t) than Lodi (2759 MJ/t, 203 kg CO 2 e/t, and 141 m 3 H 2 O/t), but approximately 16 % greater on a per hectare basis. Hand harvest (versus mechanical harvesting) and frost protection processes in Napa contributed to higher values per hectare, and lower yields in Napa account for the even larger difference per metric ton. Hand harvesting and lower yields reflect the higher value of Napa wine grapes. Conclusions The findings underscore the regional distinctions in wine grape production, which include different management goals, soils, and climate. When vineyards are managed for lower yields, as they are in Napa, energy, water, and GWP will likely be higher on a per mass basis. Strategies to reduce emissions in these regions cannot rely on increasing yields (a common approach), and alternative strategies are required, for example developing high-value co-products.

Description: Purpose Bioenergy is increasingly used to help meet greenhouse gas (GHG) and renewable energy targets. However, bioenergy’s sustainability has been questioned, resulting in increasing use of life cycle assessment (LCA). Bioenergy systems are global and complex, and market forces can result in significant changes, relevant to LCA and policy. The goal of this paper is to illustrate the complexities associated with LCA, with particular focus on bioenergy and associated policy development, so that its use can more effectively inform policymakers. Methods The review is based on the results from a series of workshops focused on bioenergy life cycle assessment. Expert submissions were compiled and categorized within the first two workshops. Over 100 issues emerged. Accounting for redundancies and close similarities in the list, this reduced to around 60 challenges, many of which are deeply interrelated. Some of these issues were then explored further at a policy-facing workshop in London, UK. The authors applied a rigorous approach to categorize the challenges identified to be at the intersection of biofuels/bioenergy LCA and policy. Results and discussion The credibility of LCA is core to its use in policy. Even LCAs that comply with ISO standards and policy and regulatory instruments leave a great deal of scope for interpretation and flexibility. Within the bioenergy sector, this has led to frustration and at times a lack of obvious direction. This paper identifies the main challenge clusters: overarching issues, application and practice and value and ethical judgments. Many of these are reflective of the transition from application of LCA to assess individual products or systems to the wider approach that is becoming more common. Uncertainty in impact assessment strongly influences planning and compliance due to challenges in assigning accountability, and communicating the inherent complexity and uncertainty within bioenergy is becoming of greater importance. Conclusions The emergence of LCA in bioenergy governance is particularly significant because other sectors are likely to transition to similar governance models. LCA is being stretched to accommodate complex and broad policy-relevant questions, seeking to incorporate externalities that have major implications for long-term sustainability. As policy increasingly relies on LCA, the strains placed on the methodology are becoming both clearer and impedimentary. The implications for energy policy, and in particular bioenergy, are large.

Description: Purpose Global warming is exerting a damaging effect on human health. This damage is not only influenced by future climate conditions but also projected economic development and population growth. That being said, there are no health damage factors related to CO 2 emissions which take into account future socioeconomic scenarios in life cycle impact assessment (LCIA). Thus, the purpose of the current research is to calculate human health damage factors based on the Special Report on Emission Scenarios (SRESs) developed by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). Methods The procedure used to calculate the SRES-based damage factors is as follows. First, a framework was developed to calculate damage factors based on multiple parameters: rise in temperature, relative risk increase, mortality rate increase, rise in number of deaths, and disability-adjusted life year (DALY) increase. Secondly, these parameters were calculated for each individual SRES based on the relationship among the parameters and CO 2 emissions, GDP, and population values of each scenario. Finally, the damage factor for each SRES was calculated by multiplying all the parameters that had been calculated based on the CO 2 emission, GDP, and population data in the corresponding scenarios. Results and discussion Using this method, the human health damage factors for four SRESs (A1B, A2, B1, and B2) were calculated. The damage factors consisted of six different items: malaria, diarrhea, cardiovascular disease, malnutrition, coastal flooding, and inland flooding. The calculated results by scenario were 2.0 × 10 −7 , 6.2 × 10 −7 , 2.1 × 10 −7 , and 4.2 × 10 −7  DALY/kg CO 2 , respectively. The damage caused by malnutrition is the greatest, followed by diarrhea. Regions of Southeast Asia, Africa, and the Middle East showed the highest damages due to their high damage from malnutrition and diarrhea. With regard to the differences among the four damage factors, the difference between the projected future mortality rate and DALY per death based on the future GDP per capita is greater than the difference between the increases in temperature among scenarios dependent on future CO 2 emission. Conclusions The human health damage factors related to CO 2 emissions for four SRESs were estimated. As a result of differences between future socioeconomic scenarios, the largest amount of damage per CO 2 emission unit was three times greater than the smallest amount. Therefore, sensitive analysis is highly recommended when seeking to compare damage caused by global warming and other impact categories.

Description: Purpose The past two decades have seen growing pressure on vehicle manufacturers to reduce the environmental impact of their vehicles. One effective way to improve fuel efficiency and lower tailpipe emissions is to use advanced high-strength steels (AHSS) that offer equal strength and crash resistance at lower mass. The present study assesses the life cycle environmental impacts of two steel grades considered for the B-pillar in the Ford Fusion: A press-hardened boron steel design as used in the previous model of the vehicle and a hydroformed component made from a mix of the molybdenum-bearing dual phase steels DP800 and DP1000. Methods Information related to the component masses and grades was provided by Ford. Process models for the steelmaking process, finishing, forming, vehicle use and end of life were created in the GaBi LCA software tool. Sensitivity analyses were conducted on the impact of the hydroforming process for the new component, for which only proxy data were available and on the mix of DP800 and DP1000 in the B-pillar. Results have been presented for the environmental impact categories deemed most relevant to vehicle use. Results and discussion The life cycle assessment showed that the new DP800/DP1000 B-pillar design has a lower impact for the environmental impact categories assessed. Overall, the global warming potential (GWP) of the new DP800/DP1000 design was 29 % lower than the boron steel design over the full life cycle of the vehicle. The use phase was found to be the major source of environmental impacts, accounting for 93 % of the life cycle GWP impact. The 4 kg weight saving accounts for the majority of the difference in impacts between the two B-pillar designs. Impacts from manufacturing were also lower for the new design for all of the impact categories assessed despite the higher alloy content of the steel. A sensitivity analysis of the hydroforming process showed that even if impacts from forming were 100 % greater than for press hardening, the GWP from production of the new B-pillar design would still be lower than the boron steel version. Conclusions and recommendations The molybdenum-bearing DP1000/DP800 B-pillar was found to have lower life cycle and production impacts than the previous boron steel design. The assessment indicates that significant improvements in the environmental impacts associated with the body structure of vehicles could be made through the increased use of AHSS in vehicles without compromising crash performance.

Description: Purpose India is one of the fastest growing economies in the world. Energy is a critical input for socio-economic development, and its strategy aims at efficiency and security. To provide access to environmentally friendly energy resources, the national biofuel policy targets cellulosic feedstocks which necessitates analysing feedstocks using holistic approaches. This paper studies the life cycle impact of ethanol production from cellulosic agricultural feedstocks. Methods The difficulty of finding appropriate life cycle inventory data for the analysed biofuels in the Indian context is overcome by combining data from diverse sources such as journal articles, government reports and personal contact with farmers. Variation in these numbers across studies is captured by means of error bars. These data are used to calculate environmental sustainability metrics such as energy return on investment, life cycle greenhouse gas emissions and life cycle water use for each fuel. Biomass sources considered in this work include cellulose from wheat stalk, rice husk, sorghum stalk, sugarcane bagasse and cotton stalk. These results are compared with ethanol from molasses and sugarcane juice, which are the conventional approaches. Results and discussion Results of the analysis indicate that sorghum stalk is most attractive due to its high energy return on investment, low greenhouse gas emissions, and low water and land use. Ethanol from rice husk has relatively high water use and greenhouse gas emissions, but these are within the margin of variability of other fuels. Despite the attractiveness of sorghum stalk from the current analysis, it is not likely that this will become a major feedstock for cellulosic ethanol in India. This is because farmers value sorghum as an animal feed and may not be willing to convert it into ethanol. Conclusions This is the first life cycle study of Indian cellulosic biofuel pathways. The inventory data collected in this work is a novel contribution that should be useful for other studies. Findings from the analysis can help guide the decision-making process in the biofuel sector for India.

Description: Purpose While there has been considerable effort to understand the environmental impact of a food or diet, nutritional effects are not usually included in food-related life cycle assessment (LCA). Methods We developed a novel Combined Nutritional and Environmental Life Cycle Assessment (CONE-LCA) framework that evaluates and compares in parallel the environmental and nutritional effects of foods or diets. We applied this framework to assess human health impacts, expressed in Disability Adjusted Life Years (DALYs), in a proof-of-concept case study that investigated the environmental and nutritional human health effects associated with the addition of one serving of fluid milk to the present average adult US diet. Epidemiology-based nutritional impacts and benefits linked to milk intake, such as colorectal cancer, stroke, and prostate cancer, were compared to selected environmental impacts traditionally considered in LCA (global warming and particulate matter) carried to a human health endpoint. Results and discussion Considering potential human health effects related to global warming, particulate matter, and nutrition, within the context of this study, findings suggest that adding one serving of milk to the current average diet could result in a health benefit for American adults, assuming that existing foods associated with substantial health benefits are not substituted, such as fruits and vegetables. The net health benefit is further increased when considering an iso-caloric substitution of less healthy foods (sugar-sweetened beverages). Further studies are needed to test whether this conclusion holds within a more comprehensive assessment of environmental and nutritional health impacts. Conclusions This case study provides the first quantitative epidemiology-based estimate of the complements and trade-offs between nutrition and environment human health burden expressed in DALYs, pioneering the infancy of a new approach in LCA. We recommend further testing of this CONE-LCA approach for other food items and diets, especially when making recommendations about sustainable diets and food choices.

Description: Purpose As most of the impact categories modelled in Life Cycle (Impact) Assessment, land use is influenced by an immense number of different impacts forming a complex interaction network. At present, there is no common consensus on the best practice for quantification of land use in LCA. However, land use and its consequences for biodiversity and ecosystem services are currently subject to intense public debate. Here, we review relevant methodology proposed to date with special reference to the hemeroby concept to identify a consistent method that captures the complexity of land use without oversimplification and loss of crucial information. Methods The definition of the safeguard subject is of vital importance and predetermines the framework of all methods and requirements for a reliable impact indicator. We selected naturalness as the safeguard subject and identified the hemeroby concept as the most appropriate approach for quantification. The hemeroby concept is particularly well suited for a nuanced assessment of different types of land use management. Results With the application of a system of seven ordinal classes, the diversity of naturalness in forestry and agricultural production systems can be adequately characterised. The applicability of the classification system of the hemeroby concept was reviewed and aspects in need of further development and method refinement were identified. Furthermore, the hemeroby concept was compared to other common concepts for the integration of land use into LCIA. Discussion The hemeroby concept was identified as an appropriate approach to quantify the safeguard subject naturalness as an LCIA indicator. In addition, it addresses subjects like biodiversity and intact ecosystems. Characterising the quality of utilised land by classes encompassing ranges on an ordinal scale offers considerable merits in comparison with single value systems on a cardinal scale. Such systems tend to oversimplify the highly complex variable land use by assuming a single quantifiable ecological indicator (e.g. soil carbon content or relative α-biodiversity) as representative proxy. In contrast to this, the hemeroby concept offers an approach that is able to retain sufficient complexity of the information available for a particular area, yet condense this information so that it may be modelled for LCA purposes without loss of crucial data. Conclusions Among all the methods currently available for the quantification of land use, the hemeroby concept is the most promising in terms of practicality of the actual method and quality of the output data. The classification into hemeroby classes is superior at capturing the complexity of land use. The method has been applied successfully in the area of European forests and agriculture. However, global availability of spatial hemeroby data and their compatibility with the criteria stipulated here needs to be evaluated and further developed as necessary. Other approaches focus on a different safeguard subject, thus narrowing the scope of land use as an impact indicator.

Description: There is a strong demand for simple, understandable and clear LCA outcomes to support decision-making especially in the context of policy-making or company management. The debate is ongoing as to whether clarity and simplicity may be obtained by adopting either LCA endpoint or even single score methods. As a contribution to this debate, a session was organised to discuss the use of midpoint, endpoint or single score indicators in support of the decision making process. The session, comprising 10 presentations about different aspects of this topic, concluded with a 40 minute panel discussion. Most authors who contributed to this SETAC Europe LCA session concluded there was a need for endpoint or single score assessment (and transparent communication of the same) for sound and effective decision-making support. This may be the better option than letting the decision makers choose the relevant impacts subjectively. But endpoint or single score results do not mean that midpoint indicators have no value. Even though endpoint or single score indicators can be very helpful in decision support, midpoint indicators help identify issues of specific environmental concern (e.g. climate change, acidification or water scarcity).

Description: Purpose To address the non-renewable resource scarcity problem, vegetable oils have been used in many technical applications such as fuel and lubricants. In this context, cultivation of the oil-bearing plant Jatropha curcas is currently seen as one option. As renewable resources are limited as well due to their occupation of land, it is important to investigate which application of Jatropha oil provides the highest environmental saving potential compared to the current use of a non-renewable resource. Methods This research investigated the potential environmental benefit of four technical applications of Jatropha oil by comparing them in a Life Cycle Assessment with the equivalent conventional products. Besides energy use (biodiesel), three examples of material use have been investigated: cold form oil (CFO), multifunctional oil (MFO), and a coolant emulsion. The service delivered by 1 kg of Jatropha oil was chosen as the functional unit resulting in specific reference flows for the different types of application. The centre of environmental science (CML) method was used to calculate the environmental impact results in six different impact categories (GWP, ADP, EP, AP, ODP, POCP). Furthermore, the influence of Jatropha cultivation on overall results was analyzed in a sensitivity analysis. Results and discussion First, absolute results for the Jatropha products are given indicating the contribution of Jatropha oil supply chain, supply of other ingredients and biodiesel and lubricant production, respectively, use, and EoL phase. Second, relative results in comparison to conventional products are shown. Finally, the environmental benefit is calculated in, e.g., kilograms of CO 2 -equivalent per kilogram of Jatropha oil. Results reflect that the environmental benefits gained from using Jatropha oil for lubricants are higher than using it for biodiesel. The study showed that twice the amount of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions can be saved per kilogram of Jatropha oil when Jatropha oil is used in lubricants like CFO instead of using it as biodiesel feedstock. In addition to a sensitivity analysis addressing agricultural practice in the Jatropha supply chain, the critical GWP for Jatropha oil production was calculated that would negate any environmental benefit over the conventional lubricant. Conclusions The choice of an application may strongly influence the environmental effectiveness of a renewable material. To identify the environmentally preferable application for a given renewable material, calculating the environmental benefit per kilogram of applied material can be a helpful indicator. Future work is suggested on matching applications and renewables in a way to efficiently combine reduction of fossil resource depletion with further environmental goals like reduction of GHG emissions.

Description: Purpose As proposed by United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)-Society for Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry (SETAC) Life Cycle Initiative (Milà i Canals et al., Int J Life Cycle Assess 18:1265–1277, 2007 and Koellner et al., Int J Life Cycle Assess 18:1188–1202, 2013 ), the impacts of land occupation should be studied in comparison to a baseline. Regardless of these guidelines, a land use baseline is often ignored in agro-bioenergy life cycle assessment (LCA) studies. This paper tests the appropriateness and significance of applying natural regeneration as a land use baseline for assessing the greenhouse gas (GHG) balances of agro-bioenergy in Finland. Methods In the land use baseline applied, the land is assumed to be left to regenerate toward its natural state, which, in Finland, would most probably be some sort of forest. The foregone carbon stock of the natural regeneration baseline was estimated based on the literature. The GHG balances were studied by comparing the cumulative warming impacts of the dynamic biomass carbon cycle of the agro-bioenergy production system and the defined baseline over a given time horizon varying from 0 to 100 years. The significance of the results is illustrated by comparing them to other GHG emissions related to bioenergy. Results and discussion The results depend significantly on the agro-bioenergy yields and the carbon sequestration rate assumed in the natural regeneration baseline scenario. The GHG balances may be of the same magnitude as GHG emissions due to indirect land use changes resulting from market-mediated impacts, life cycle emissions of fossil fuels, and relative reduction in carbon stocks due to forest harvesting for bioenergy. Conclusions Ignoring a dynamic land use baseline results in misleading conclusions on the GHG balances of land occupation, including agro-bioenergy, due to ignorance of foregone carbon sequestration. Thus, the interpretation of the results and conclusions provided in the vast number of agro-bioenergy LCA studies relying on biomass carbon neutrality should be reassessed. Besides bioenergy, the issue of land use baseline is relevant for any provision service function of land occupation. The foregone carbon sequestration is, however, highly uncertain and thus speculative.

Description: Purpose Residues in field crops grown and harvested for human consumption are the main contributor to overall human exposure toward agricultural pesticides for the general population. However, exposure from crop residues is currently not considered in life cycle assessment practice. We therefore present a consistent framework for characterizing human toxicological impacts associated with pesticides applied to agricultural crops in the frame of life cycle impact assessment based on state-of-the-art data and methods. Methods We combine a dynamic multicrop plant uptake model designed for evaluating human exposure to residues for a wide range of pesticide-crop combinations with latest findings of pesticide dissipation kinetics in crops and post-harvest food processing. Outcome is a set of intake fractions and characterization factors for 875 organic pesticides and six major food crops along with specific confidence intervals for each factor. Results and discussion Intake fractions aggregating exposure via crop residues and exposure via fractions lost to air and soil for pesticides applied to agricultural crops vary between 10 −8 and 10 −1  kg intake per kilogram applied as a function of pesticide and crop. Intake fractions are typically highest for lettuce and tomato and lowest for potato due to differences in application times before crop harvest and soil as additional barrier for uptake into potato tubers. Uncertainty in intake fractions is mainly associated with dissipation dynamics in crops, where results demonstrate that using pesticide- and crop-specific data is crucial. Combined with the uncertainty in effect modeling, characterization factors per pesticide and crop show squared geometric mean standard deviations ranging from 38 to 15,560 over a variability range across pesticide-crop combinations of 10 orders of magnitude. Conclusions Our framework is operational for use in current life cycle impact assessment models, is made available for USEtox, and closes an important gap in the assessment of human exposure to pesticides. For ready use in life cycle assessment studies, we present pesticide-crop combination-specific characterization factors normalized to pesticide mass applied and provide default data for application times and loss due to post-harvest food processing. When using our data, we emphasize the need to consult current pesticide regulation, since each pesticide is registered for use on certain crops only, which varies between countries.

Description: Purpose The purpose of the study is to compare the performances of two passenger cars: an electric vehicle (EV) and an internal combustion engine vehicle (ICEV) paying particular attention to the production of electricity that will charge the EV. Even if many similar comparative life cycle assessments (LCAs) exist (Nordelöf et al. J Life Cycle Assess 19(11):1866–18990, 2014), only few have focused their attention on evaluating which is the kind of electricity that will recharge EV batteries (Hawkins et al. Int J Life Cycle Assess 17(8):997–1014, 2012). Methods Despite its relevance, many EV LCA studies have used a ready-to-use dataset to evaluate the power mix that supplies electricity to EV. The present paper tries to better define the power mix that recharges EV batteries in Italy according to the national power system and the national electric market rules. A 2013 and a 2030 scenario have been developed in order to understand effects in short and middle term. Life cycle inventory of electricity for EV has been estimated modifying available datasets according to official Italian data on power plants’ efficiency and emission rates. Finally, also for the ICEV use phase, existing dataset have been modified for fuel consumption and regulated emission according to the National Inventory Report results (ISPRA 2014) Results and discussion In both 2013 and 2030 scenarios, the power mix that in Italy supplies energy to EV is dominated by fossil fuel power plants. Nevertheless, due to the fact that more than the 60 % of this energy is produced in efficient combined cycle gas turbine power plants, EV performs better than ICEV in almost all the impact categories considered except for human toxicity and eutrophication, the only two impact categories in which the EV car, mainly due to battery manufactory, presents more relevant potential impacts. ICEV impacts are always dominated by well to wheel phases (use phase and fuel production). EV car and battery manufacturing have higher impacts for all categories than ICEV car manufacturing. Conclusions The study demonstrates that electricity supplied in Italy to EV today is, and will probably be in 2030, mainly produced by fossil fuel power plants. Nevertheless, the EV proves to be able to reduce, with respect to ICEV, those impacts it is supposed to reduce: air acidification, photochemical oxidant formation, and also greenhouse gases. Trade-offs are, as foreseeable, eutrophication and human toxicity due to EV car and battery manufacturing.

Description: Purpose This study aims to compare crop rotation systems used in organic farming (organic rotation systems) with those of both conventional farming (conventional rotation systems) and continuous rice cropping systems. Life cycle assessment (LCA) is performed based on land- and product-based indicators. Methods Seven crop rotation systems for rice, barley, and soybeans and continuous rice production systems were evaluated in this study. These systems are practiced by farmers in the study region and were constructed using production records, statistics, and guidelines. Comparisons were then made between organic and conventional crop rotation systems and between these crop rotation systems and a continuous rice production system. We used land-oriented expression to analyze tradeoffs between physical and monetary productivity and the environmental impact per area unit and product-oriented expression to analyze efficiency as measured by the environmental impact per product unit. Results and discussion Results are summarized as follows: (1) The product-oriented expression, which is equivalent to conducting product LCA, revealed that organic conversion tended to be efficient, irrespective of using physical productivity (the functional unit of product mass measured as averaged annual energy yield) or using monetary productivity (the functional unit of product mass measured as averaged annual income). (2) However, the land-oriented expression revealed that there were tradeoffs between physical productivity and environmental impacts, although these tradeoffs were converted to win–win relationships if monetary productivity was used instead of physical productivity, and (3) the alteration of a continuous rice production system into crop rotations tended to be efficient and enables a win–win relationship. Conclusions Organic rotation systems have the potential of being recommended as sustainable agricultural practices in comparison with conventional rotation systems and continuous (organic and conventional) rice production systems. However, it was not clarified which productivity concepts should be used as evaluation criteria. It is considered that further studies using mechanistic modeling of crop rotations are required to improve LCA practices.

Description: Purpose The goal of this paper is to describe the life cycle inventory (LCI) approach to the cokemaking process in the Integrated Steel Plant’s Coke Oven Battery (ISPCOB) in Kraków, Poland. The system boundaries were labeled as gate-to-gate, covering the full chain process of coke production. The background input and output data from the coke production process (CPP) has been inventoried. Methods The functional unit (FU) was produced of 1 Mg of the coke in ISPCOB. The following inputs and outputs have been taken into account in the LCI study: product (coke), all intermediate products, by-products, and emissions. Raw fuel mining and means of external transportation of natural gas, manufacture of downstream products, their use, end of life, and infrastructure were not included. Time coverage is 2004, because since 2005, robust inventory data coverage of full ISP coke processes are lacking. Data used for inventory calculation are affected by uncertainty. Results and discussion With regard to 1 Mg of coke produced in ISPCOB in 2004, the consumption of coke coal and coke oven gas amounted to 1.35 Mg and 195 m 3 , respectively. The main materials, fuels, and energy used for the coke production were electric energy, steam, air, heat, and industrial water. Emissions of SO 2 , NO 2 , CO, CO 2 , NH 3 , aliphatic hydrocarbons, HCN, H 2 S, CS 2 , benzene, xylene, toluene, phenol, pyridine, dust, tar matters, Cr, Cd, Cu, Pb, Ni, and Mn have been considered. Conclusions The data for the LCI have been based on the year 2004. Uncertainty assessment in LCI is discussed. The purpose of this study is to help ISP authorities to solve environmental and technical aspects, as well as to train steel industry people in the field of life cycle assessment. Finally, presented LCI study for ISPCOB can serve as a representative data for LCA analysis of coke production in coke plants. Recommendations The impact assessment phase aims to present more understandable results from the inventory analysis, and life cycle impact assessment (LCIA) will be the direction for future research.

Description: Purpose The impact of human activities on marine environments is poorly addressed by the scope of life cycle impact assessment (LCIA). The aim of this study is to provide characterization factors to assess impacts of sea use such as fishing activities or seafloor destruction and transformation on the life support functions of marine ecosystems. Methods The consensual framework of land use for ecosystem services damage potential assessment was applied, according to the recent United Nations Environment Programme-Society for Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry (UNEP-SETAC) guidelines, using the free net primary production as a quality index of life support functions. Results and discussion The impact of shading, biomass removal, seafloor destruction, and artificial habitat creation on the available quantity of organic biomass for the ecosystem functioning was quantified at the midpoint level with a common unit (kg of organic carbon equivalent). It included effects of human interventions on both the ecosystem production potential and the stock of biomass present within the ecosystem. Characterization factors (CF) for biomass removal vary from 0.1 kg Ceq  kg −1 for seaweed to 111.1 kg Ceq  kg −1 for tunas, bonitos, and billfishes. CF for seafloor destruction range from 0.164 kg Ceq  m −2 for a temperate seagrass ecosystem to 0.342 kg Ceq  m −2 for an intertidal tropical rocky habitat. Conclusions This study provides an operational method in order to compute sea use impact assessment.

Description: Purpose In recent years, green building has become a social hotspot and raised much concern of academic. However, traditional researches of green building mostly focused on technology, while research on social and humanity demand on green residential districts is still scarce. To complement the gap of research and reality, this paper is intended to establish a quantitative evaluation method for social humanity needs of green residential districts based on social life cycle assessment (SLCA). Methods Based on the SLCA method, an evaluation indicator system for social and humanity demand of green residential districts was proposed, considering different stakeholders (real estate developers, construction enterprises, community residents, and decision makers). Additionally, the adopted evaluation indicator system was applied to a practical community in China as a case study by questionnaire surveys and the method of analytic hierarchy process. Results and discussion Case study results show that the residents prefer to pay more for a better living environment, and the real estate developers are willing to increase the investment moderately on the projects. Meanwhile, the local government likes to support the development of green residential districts, as well. Conclusions Analysis results are in line with the social demand for high-quality living environment of Chinese residents and the public concern about buildings’ comprehensive benefits.

Description: Purpose Social life cycle assessment (S-LCA) applications have been growing during the last years. Most of the scientific articles published so far have addressed the applicability of S-LCA, focusing on selecting suitable indicators, and only recently, the developments in the area of impact pathway are increasing. However, a critical analysis of how to set an S-LCA study, in particular the goal and scope and inventory phase, is missing. This article critically analyses the most important elements affecting the goal and scope and inventory phase of S-LCA, with a focus on the automotive sector, with the ultimate goal of developing a structured approach to guide practitioners in the critical application of S-LCA. Methods The literature review covers 67 publications from 2006 to 2015, including all the case studies published so far, to the best knowledge of the authors, in several sectors and the automotive one. The reviewed works have been structured along the key elements affecting the goal and scope and inventory phases of the S-LCA. Results and discussion The methodological and practical issues affecting S-LCA have been organized into a conceptual map, in which all the elements are sequentially placed. This sequence is an orderly procedure consisting of several nodes representing crucial points where a decision needs to be taken or a further reflection is necessary. The case studies of the automotive sector and the corporate-related documents have been used also for the discussion of the conceptual map nodes to identify which aspects are already covered by the literature and which ones need further research. Conclusions Facing the inventory phase of S-LCA needs also to set specific elements of the goal and scope phase which are fundamental for approaching coherently the product system at hand and for supporting the selection of stakeholders, indicators, and data. Moreover, in order to foster S-LCA applications and make it a robust decision-support tool, the authors suggest to re-define its framework and approach according to the organizational perspective, as laid down in the recent Organisation Environmental Footprint and Organizational LCA. This implies that social aspects will be evaluated both in relation to the organization behavior and to the basket of products, thus reconciling the need to keep together the conduct-of-a-company perspective, typical of social evaluations, and the product-oriented approach, inherent to the life cycle and in particular to the functional unit concept.

Description: Purpose Initiatives like the EU Product Environmental Footprint have been pushing the discussion about the choice of life cycle impact assessment methods. Practitioners often prefer to use established methods for performance tracking, result stability, and consistency reasons. Method developers rather support newly developed methods. As case studies must provide consistent results in order to ensure reliable decision-making support, a systematic approach to qualify decision support maturity of newly developed impact assessment methods is needed. Methods A three step approach referring to key aspects for decision maturity was developed which takes the established life cycle impact assessment methods as a benchmark. In the first step, the underlying models of the methods and their respective differences are analyzed to capture the scope and detail of the characterization models. Second, the considered and available elementary flows covered by the methods are identified and compared to reveal consistent coverage, respectively, gaps between alternatives. In the third step, neglected elementary flows are evaluated with regard to their potential impact to the particular impact category. Furthermore, the characterization factors of concurring elementary flows are analyzed for significant differences in their shares. The developed approach was tested for LCIA methods for eutrophication and acidification in Europe. Results and discussion A systematic and practical qualification of decision support maturity can be achieved by a three-step approach benchmarking model scope, quantitative and qualitative coverage of elementary flows for new methods with established ones. For the application example, the established CML-IA method was compared with the ReCiPe method and the method of accumulated exceedance. These models vary regarding subdivision of environmental compartments, consideration of fate, as well as regionalization of characterization factors. The amount of covered elementary flows varies significantly as CML-IA covers about 28 more flows within the category acidification and about 35 more flows within the category eutrophication compared to ReCiPe and accumulated exceedance. The significance of all neglected elementary flows for the categories eutrophication and acidification is significant and represents a gap of up to 80 %. Furthermore, it was shown that the shares of some concurring elementary flows differ significantly. Conclusions The introduced approach allows the benchmarking of newly developed against established methods based on application-oriented criteria. It was demonstrated that significant differences between the methods exist. To guarantee reliable decision-making support, newly developed methods should not replace established ones until a minimum level of decision support maturity is reached.

Description: Purpose Several new “biophysical” co-product allocation methodologies have been developed for LCA studies of agricultural systems based on proposed physical or causal relationships between inputs and outputs (i.e. co-products). These methodologies are thus meant to be preferable to established allocation methodologies such as economic allocation under the ISO 14044 standard. The aim here was to examine whether these methodologies really represent underlying physical relationships between the material and energy flows and the co-products in such systems, and hence are of value. Methods Two key components of agricultural LCAs which involve co-product allocation were used to provide examples of the methodological challenges which arise from adopting biophysical allocation in agricultural LCA: (1) the crop production chain and (2) the multiple co-products produced by animals. The actual “causal” relationships in these two systems were illustrated, the energy flows within them detailed, and the existing biophysical allocation methods, as found in literature, were critically evaluated in the context of such relationships. Results and discussion The premise of many biophysical allocation methodologies has been to define relationships which describe how the energy input to agricultural systems is partitioned between co-products. However, we described why none of the functional outputs from animal or crop production can be considered independently from the rest on the basis of the inputs to the system. Using the example of manure in livestock systems, we also showed why biophysical allocation methodologies are still sensitive to whether a system output has economic value or not. This sensitivity is a longstanding criticism of economic allocation which is not resolved by adopting a biophysical approach. Conclusions The biophysical allocation methodologies for various aspects of agricultural systems proposed to date have not adequately explained how the physical parameters chosen in each case represent causal physical mechanisms in these systems. Allocation methodologies which are based on shared (but not causal) physical properties between co-products are not preferable to allocation based on non-physical properties within the ISO hierarchy on allocation methodologies and should not be presented as such.

Description: A bstract Purpose Electricity is one of the main contributors to global environmental impacts, and its role as an energy carrier is expected to grow substantially. Consequently, reliable and accurate inventories of material and energy flows associated with electricity supply are essential in environmental assessments. This article aims to summarize existing challenges and opportunities in the modeling of life cycle inventories (LCIs) of electricity supply from a data quality perspective. Methods We systematically review the state-of-the-art in LCI modeling of current and future electricity supply worldwide. The analysis is structured according to the data quality characteristics proposed in ISO 14044: 2006 : representativeness, completeness, consistency, reproducibility, uncertainty, data sources, and precision. Results and discussion Looking at existing LCIs through the lens of data quality, we observe difficulties in obtaining temporally and technologically representative data, while geographically representative data is still unavailable for some regions. Moreover, meta-analyses encountered issues of reproducibility combined with a lack of consistency across studies, impeding interstudy comparability. Additionally, some flows such as upstream fugitive emissions have been underestimated. The aforementioned issues have a negative impact on the quality of LCIs. Here, we provide recommendations on how several methods such as equilibrium models, regression, or parameterization can be used to improve data quality, underpinned by more powerful data formats. Open-source models, data platforms, as well as a list of key parameters to be reported are suggested to facilitate reproducibility and enhance transparency of electricity LCIs. Conclusions There are several methods and resources that can be used to improve LCIs of electricity supply, enabling more ambitious and powerful analyses. Nonetheless, special care should be taken concerning tradeoffs between different data quality aspects. For instance, more complex and accurate models may result in a loss of transparency and reproducibility unless additional reporting efforts are conducted. Other approaches, such as systematic parameterization do not compromise data quality and should be used to improve the consistency and reproducibility of inventories.

Description: Purpose Due to various environmental pressures such as climate change and scarcity of natural resources, as well as nontariff barriers from trade partners, Thailand has established the Thai national life cycle inventory (LCI) database in 2006. In the 1st phase (2006–2007), three working groups were developed for natural gas, refinery, and petrochemical products. Another seven working groups were established in the 2nd phase (2007–2010) for ferrous and non-ferrous metals, utilities and transportation, construction materials, agricultural materials and products, basic chemicals, recycling and waste management, and others. In the 3rd phase (2010 to present), expansion of the number of data sets from the previous phases has been carried out. The purpose of this paper is to present the experiences on national database development in emerging countries with the example of Thailand on both strategic and technical levels using refinery products as the case study. Methods Data sets were developed according to ISO 14044:2006. The LCI data were managed and archived at the central facility known as the “central LCI database”. The Life Cycle Assessment lab (LCA lab) at MTEC, NSTDA, has been responsible for the central LCI database management. From 2008 to 2010, the “Thai national LCI database and its applications” project was granted a 3-year funding of over 50 million THB, and was operated under supervision of a steering committee set up by the Ministry of Industry (MoI). For this case study, to illustrate the development process, primary data of the refinery products were collected by Petroleum Institute of Thailand in the year 2005 from seven refineries covering more than 70 % of the production in the country. Attributional modelling has been used, with energy content as an allocation criterion. Results and discussion During the initial phase of the “Thai National LCI Database Development Project”, two key barriers have been faced. One was the lack of awareness from stakeholders as LCI and LCA were quite new tools for most people in Thailand. This problem was tackled by collaborating with the right strategic partners to drive the LCI national project and educating stakeholders with the training supports from Japan. The other hindrance was the lack of expertise of local experts on LCA. It took several years to continually build the capacity through seminars and workshops in Thailand and Japan, including “on the job training” on some pilot projects. As of May 2016, there were more than 700 data sets in the Thai national LCI database, considering only the data that MTEC acted as the project commissioner. However, only 515 data were certified as the national database. The other 211 data were qualified merely as the data from pilot projects. More details of the database list and how to access the data can be viewed in Thai language at the URL: http://www.thailcidatabase.net . Because the Thai national LCI data were mostly primary data from a core set of products for the Thai economy with a very high representativeness (〉60 %) of the actual Thai productions, the data have been treated carefully. Only C-to-G data and G-to-G data from literature were allowed to disclose to Thai delegates with some signing agreements. However, G-to-G data from the actual Thai productions were sometimes provided, only with the signing confidentiality contracts. For refinery products, seven average data sets were established as national LCI data sets, i.e. liquefied petroleum gas, sulfur, gasoline, kerosene/jet oil, naphtha, fuel oil and diesel, with the year 2005 as the reference year. The data representativeness was very high covering more than 70 % of the production in Thailand. Due to the positive feedback and engagement from industries, several LCI projects have been started after this initial phase. The national LCI data sets have been used in various national applications and policies such as sustainable biofuels, government green public procurement, green GDP, Thai carbon footprint, etc. However, some relevant limitations of the Thai LCI database were listed as follows. Similar to most surveyed national LCI database worldwide, the climate change impact category has been chosen as the main focus for these data sets. Nevertheless, there is a more growing demand to use the data for other applications. As a result, more data sets that cover other impact categories will be required in the near future. Regarding the nomenclature and format, the Thai data sets were technically unique and not fully compatible with any other database. Conclusions The Thai national LCI database could be considered as the pioneer case for other countries in the South East Asia region. Thailand has further progressed in its LCI database development. Since 2009, the Thai national LCI database has been used as one of the key infrastructures of Thailand to support public policies and applications related to green growth. Many Thai stakeholders are well aware on LCI, LCA, and EcoDesign. Expertise of local experts has been increasingly improved. However, there are still more challenges to be faced to harvest the value of the Thai database in its full potential for better decision making in industry and policy, and for better positioning of Thai products on the global markets. From our experience, the following issues could be identified as “lessons learned”. At the onset of the project, it was crucial to get in expert advices from LCA-experienced countries to establish local expertise. Also, industry experts from abroad could help in clarifying the concept and addressing confidentiality concerns, as well as building awareness on LCA to Thai industries. Searching for some supporting programmes for capacity building, such as the GPP from Japan in our case, could provide great benefits to any emerging economies for national LCI initiatives. However, sustaining the trained human resources was also vital. Continual funding supports for LCI development and its applications were necessary to keep the momentum of active people in the field. Multiplying effect of the LCI knowledge to related organizations in the three main groups, i.e. government, academia, and industries, could help sustain the knowhow. Also, effective knowledge management through media such as books, guidelines, training courses, etc. would relief the turnover problem of trained staffs. Although it took a lot of time to develop local expertise, it was an essential step to have sufficient number of local experts to sustain the national database project. Moreover, a strong network of experts and researchers locally and internationally also strengthened the technical capacity to deal with any challenges during the project implementation. Furthermore, collaboration with the right strategic partners to drive the project was also very important in order to elevate it to the national level. It should be noted for any emerging economies aiming to initiate national LCI, the work plan for LCI database development (including the database management system) and its applications should be well balanced. Also, a well-designed database management system would enhance the database usage in the long run, especially when dealing with various impact categories like those in PEF.

Description: Purpose Life cycle assessment (LCA) studies of food products, such as dairy, require many input parameters that are affected by variability and uncertainty. Moreover, correlations may be present between input parameters, e.g. between feed intake and milk yield. The purpose of this study was to identify which input parameters are essential to assess the greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions of milk production, while accounting for correlations between input parameters, and using a systematic approach. Methods Three diets corresponding to three grazing systems (zero-, restricted and unrestricted grazing) were selected, which were defined to aim for a milk yield of 10,000 kg energy corrected milk (ECM) cow −1  year −1 . First, a local sensitivity analysis was used to identify which parameters influence GHG emissions most. Second, a global sensitivity analysis was used to identify which parameters are most important to the output variance. The global analysis included correlations between feed intake and milk yield and between N fertilizer rates and crop yields. The local and global sensitivity analyses were combined to determine which parameters are essential . Finally, we analysed the effect of changing the most important correlation coefficient (between feed intake and milk yield) on the output variance and global sensitivity analysis. Results and discussion The total GHG emissions for 1 kg ECM ranged from 1.08 to 1.12 kg CO 2 e, depending on the grazing system. The local sensitivity analysis identified milk yield, feed intake, and the CH 4 emission factor of enteric fermentation of the cows as most influential parameters in the LCA model. The global sensitivity analysis identified the CH 4 emission factor of enteric fermentation, milk yield, feed intake and the direct N 2 O emission factor of crop cultivation as most important parameters. For both grazing systems, N 2 O emission factor for grazing also turned out to be important. In addition, the correlation coefficient between feed intake and milk yield turned out to be important. The systematic approach resulted in more parameters than previously found. Conclusions By combining a local and a global sensitivity analysis, parameters were determined which are essential to assess GHG emissions of milk production. These parameters are the CH 4 emission factor of enteric fermentation, milk yield, feed intake, the direct N 2 O emission factor of crop cultivation and the N 2 O emission factor for grazing. Future research should focus on reducing uncertainty and improving data quality of these essential parameters.

Description: Purpose Improving technical properties and the durability of wood-based products by modification in various processing technologies is subject to recent research and development activities. This study aimed at integrating environmental considerations during the research and development phase of a novel modification process for a multilayer wood parquet. Due to expected challenges when applying Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) in this phase, the eco-profile of the modified multilayer wood parquet was referred to the original multilayer parquet by estimating payback period and identifying other payback options. Methods An LCA was conducted during the research and development phase of the modification process at laboratory scale and is characterized as ex ante environmental screening of a newly developed technology. The environmental assessment of new products and manufacturing processes during the research and development phase, however, faces multifarious challenges, such as the definition of a functional unit and the service life length. In order to overcome these challenges, the idea was to answer the question under which circumstances the modification process pays back from the perspective of non-renewable energy use and global-warming potential. Aside from investigation of payback period, the feasibility of other payback options was systematically searched. Results and discussion The extra resource input and the resulting increase in environmental burden of the modification of the multilayer parquet can be justified with the extension of service life length by 10 to 20 %, referring to global warming potential and non-renewable energy use, respectively. Other payback options found were adjusting chemical loading during modification, making renovations superfluous, or reducing transport effort. Other than transportation and renovation, which are user-dependent, only the modification lies within the scope of the parquet producer. Conclusions The payback concept is found suitable for comparative estimations on the magnitude of change in environmental performance of product variants during research and development. By investigating on multiple payback options, it was enabled to frame the change in environmental performance, which is essential in order to define the scope of further research and development in a target-oriented way. The possibility of using LCA for an environmental technology valuation at an early stage in product and process development is demonstrated in this study.

Description: Purpose The main purpose of this study is to present an implementation of the subcategory assessment method (SAM) to the life cycle of an Italian variety of tomato called “Cuore di Bue” produced by an Italian cooperative. The case study was used to use the methodology proposed in compliance with the guidelines of social life cycle assessment (S-LCA) in order to highlight issues for the improvement of SAM. A summary of strengths and weaknesses of the methodology as well as the social performance of the considered Italian tomato is an important result of this case study. Methods The methodology used is based on SAM. The UNEP/SETAC guidelines of S-LCA and the complementary methodological sheets were used as main references to carry out SAM, and it was used to assess the social performances of Cuore di Bue. The focus was on the assessment of the following three out of five stakeholder groups presented in the guidelines: workers, local community and consumers. Specific questionnaires have been developed to collect the inventory data related to each stakeholder group and along the product life cycle. Results and discussion SAM of Cuore di Bue showed a range of values, between 2 and 3 (C-B) for consumer stakeholder group and mainly 3 (B) for the local community and worker stakeholders. Because the best performance (A) is related to a numerical value of 4, better performances were not identified, owing to no propagation of actions in the value chain. The collective bargaining, transparency, feedback mechanism and privacy are the subcategories with the worst performance, but at the same time with more potential for improvements. Conclusions The implementation of SAM on Cuore di Bue allowed us to demonstrate how SAM transforms qualitative data into semi-quantitative information through a score scale that can help a decision maker achieve a product overview. SAM has been implemented on Cuore di Bue; the product assessment, the strengths and weaknesses of the methodology are identified and discussed as well. It has been possible to present the best and worst performances in product life cycle, by identifying the phase or the subcategories with good or bad performance. However, in this case study, as the same company owns most of the product life cycle taken into account, the majority of social performances are identical, and this may represent a limit of the methodology or that more organisations along the life cycle must be taken into account (for example, energy, distribution).

Description: Purpose This study assesses the total life cycle environmental impact of the planned high-speed rail line from Lisbon to Porto, in Portugal. It includes the impact from the seven main processes of train manufacturing, train operation, train maintenance, train disposal, track construction, track operation and maintenance, and track disposal. Methods The SimaPro Life Cycle Assessment software is used and is based upon the ecoinvent v3 transport services process. The functional unit is 1 km of high-speed rail in Portugal for the processes and one passenger kilometer at the assembly level. Data was adjusted to reflect the Portuguese situation for electricity mix, domestic production of materials, transport distances, transport mode, and domestic emissions. In total, 50 different inputs were adjusted. The results were compared with transportation life cycle assessments for other countries. Results and discussion The train operation process contributes the most to total environmental emissions: 69 % of the 684 million kilograms CO 2 -eq., 76 % of the 4.9 million kilograms SO 2 -eq. and 82 % of the 2.4 million kilograms PM 10 -eq. Train manufacturing is the next largest contributor to total environmental emissions. The electricity mix plays a role in the amount of emissions, e.g., cleaner technology tends to have lower per passenger kilometer emissions. However, demand drives the amount of emissions per passenger kilometer. Conclusions While the train operation process contributes the most to emissions, ignoring the other processes results in a substantial understatement of total environmental impact. For CO 2 -eq. that means that 31 % of the total impact is ignored because the impact from construction, maintenance, and end of life is not included. Electricity mix and ridership levels have a very significant impact on emissions.

Description: Purpose The rapid urbanization and the constant expansion of urban areas during the last decades have locally led to increasing water shortage. Rainwater harvesting (RWH) systems have the potential to be an important contributor to urban water self-sufficiency. The goal of this study was to select an environmentally optimal RWH strategy in newly constructed residential buildings linked to rainwater demand for laundry under Mediterranean climatic conditions, without accounting for water from the mains. Methods Different strategies were environmentally assessed for the design and use of RWH infrastructures in residential apartment blocks in Mediterranean climates. The harvested rainwater was used for laundry in all strategies. These strategies accounted for (i) tank location (i.e., tank distributed over the roof and underground tank), (ii) building height considering the number of stories (i.e., 6, 9, 12, and 15), and (iii) distribution strategy (i.e., shared laundry, supply to the nearest apartments, and distribution throughout the building). The RWH systems consisted of the catchment, storage, and distribution stages, and the structural and hydraulic calculations were based on Mediterranean conditions. The quantification of the environmental performance of each strategy (e.g., CO 2 eq. emissions) was performed in accordance with the life cycle assessment methodology. Results and discussion According to the environmental assessment, the tank location and distribution strategy chosen were the most important variables in the optimization of RWH systems. Roof tank strategies present fewer impacts than their underground tank equivalents because they enhance energy and material savings, and their reinforcement requirements can be accounted for within the safety factors of the building structure without the tank. Among roof tanks and depending on the height, a distribution strategy that concentrates demand in a laundry room was the preferable option, resulting in reductions from 25 to 54 % in most of the selected impact categories compared to distribution throughout the building. Conclusions These results may set new urban planning standards for the design and construction of buildings from the perspective of sustainable water management. In this sense, a behavioral change regarding demand should be promoted in compact, dense urban settlements.

Description: Purpose The UNEP-SETAC Life Cycle Initiative has recently developed a guideline framework for land use impact assessment. This article evaluates the feasibility and highlights the challenges of applying a set of methods that adhere to this framework, and identifies the strengths and weaknesses of the indicators used in these methods, for the purpose of supporting further methodological development. Methods The methods were tested in two case studies of animal protein production in Sweden: dairy milk and pork. The reference situations were defined as the potential natural vegetation. County-level characterization factors (CFs) were calculated and occupation impacts were assessed for five ecosystem services, using six ecosystem service indicators: carbon flow change, groundwater recharge, mechanical filtration capacity, physicochemical filtration capacity, soil loss, and soil organic carbon, at two geographic scales: county and biome. Strengths and weaknesses of the ecosystem service indicators were identified using an evaluation framework for selected quality characteristics: representativeness, reliability, feasibility, and transparency. Results and discussion Occupation impacts at the two geographic scales, and for the two production cases, differ both in absolute numbers, and—for mechanical and physicochemical filtration capacity—in the ranking of cases. Results at both geographic scales indicate positive effects—or lower negative impacts—in protein production from dairy milk compared to pork, due to grass production on dairy farms, and lower use of land per unit protein. However, some of the observed benefits may be exaggerated due to challenges in adequately representing the reference situations. Most indicators were assigned medium or high degrees of representativeness, feasibility, and transparency, but several were assigned low degrees of reliability, due to the weak scientific basis upon which they were selected, low degrees of accuracy, and insufficient information on how they should be assessed. Conclusions Occupation impact results should be interpreted with caution due to challenges in applying the methods and use of indicators with identified weaknesses. The most challenging part of developing regionalized CFs was finding suitable land areas from which to derive representative data to parameterize the reference situations. More research is needed to provide adequate support to life cycle assessment practitioners who wish to calculate regionalized CFs and to address the identified weaknesses.

Description: Purpose Whereas the business evolution of environmental sustainability metrics has advanced significantly over the past decade, social sustainability at product level is still relatively immature. Research continues to support the front runners on organisational sustainability, while workable solutions at product level have not yet been addressed sufficiently. Triggered by this imbalance, a group of experts from large companies decided to join forces, initiating the Roundtable for Product Social Metrics. Methods Starting in early 2013, this group of companies aimed to (i) consolidate principles for product social sustainability assessment and harmonise approaches, (ii) align with other global initiatives and share with other companies and (iii) develop solutions for cross-cutting implementation issues. In order to be able to produce a comprehensive method for social impact assessment that provides enough flexibility for individual requirements, the Roundtable developed a method based on the approaches of the participant companies and external references such as the UNEP/SETAC Guidelines for Social Life-Cycle Assessment of Products and corporate level standards. Guiding principles were defined for the development of the method. Results and discussion The results of the first two phases of the Roundtable for Product Social Metrics are documented in a handbook, which proposes a practical method for organisations to assess the social impacts of a product or a service along its life cycle. The handbook outlines an aligned method for social impact assessment at a product level offering two approaches: quantitative and scale based. The method was developed to allow reasoned assessment of overall performance by including social topics and performance indicators that reflect positive and negative impacts of the product on three stakeholder groups: workers, consumers and local communities. Nineteen social topics are proposed, together with their individual performance indicators, including detailed definitions. Application examples and recommendations for the communication of results are also included in the handbook. Conclusions The method can be applied in numerous scenarios, from understanding improvement opportunities and steering product development in different stages, to providing support for decision making and external communications. However, the method still has further potential for improvement, inter alia that the proposed indicators are not fully applicable to small farmers, SMEs and the self-employed, as well as that the indicators are mainly at inventory level. Furthermore, the proposed method is strongly dependent on the availability of data.

Description: Purpose Silver-enabled textiles use the inherent antimicrobial properties of silver to produce a product with odor reduction capabilities. A touted benefit of these products is the ability to reduce their lifetime environmental impact through reductions in laundering. A comprehensive life cycle assessment is needed to fully understand the potential benefit of reduced laundering, environmental payback period, and potential to shift consumer-laundering behavior. Methods Three commercially available silver-enabled polyester fabrics are compared to a conventional fabric using life cycle assessment methodology. Sima Pro software along with the Tool for Reduction and Assessment of Chemicals and Other Environmental Impacts (TRACI) impact categories are used to model the environmental impact of the four textiles (three with added silver, and one conventional textile) throughout their lifetimes. Environmental payback is used to determine the number of reductions of launderings necessary for environmental benefit to be realized from the inclusion of silver. Current literature on laundering motivations and habits is reviewed to yield insight on whether there is the potential for consumers to launder their textiles less frequently. Results and discussion The lifetime environmental impact of the three textiles considered varies as a function of the silver content and environmental impact category. In some impact categories, such as global warming potential, the laundering phase has the greatest environmental impact and thus has the potential for the greatest reduction. In other categories, such as ecotoxicity, the most significant impact is due to the percentage of silver that is released into surface water from the textile. In this case, environmental parity (the point at which the environmental impacts are the same) is not always possible to achieve. A review of the literature suggests that the motivation to launder textiles along with the frequency varies significantly across populations and times in history. Conclusions Silver-enabled textiles have the potential to reduce the odors produced by unwashed textiles through bacterial inhibition. In some cases, there is the potential to achieve adequate reductions in laundering to compensate for the increased energy and raw materials needed to produce silver-enabled textile. However, frequency of laundering is largely a cultural norm based on perceived cleanliness and is unlikely to be shifted as a function of textile adoption.

Description: Purpose There are a range of systems thinking-based methods well established for participatory actions that allow for greater integration of various mental models and understanding of systems that should be considered in advancing engagement methods in SLCA. This paper highlights the potential application of participatory modelling approaches based in systems thinking theory as a potential entry point in stakeholder inclusion and understanding impact pathways and system behaviour in social life cycle assessment (SLCA). Methods We discuss the application of various systems thinking methodologies to SLCA, along with pertinent examples from literature, and develop a framework that integrates both methodologies. Results and discussion Here we propose three distinct benefits of group modelling approaches; (1) procedural benefits through the ability to be inclusive of mental models, various perspectives and enhance stakeholder conceptualisation of a system; and the ability to combine both (2) qualitative and (3) quantitative analysis techniques under a cohesive framework. We propose the specific merits of combining the use of agent-based (AB) and system dynamic (SD) modelling in SLCA due to the emphasis upon consumer decisions and behaviour and the inherently dynamic non-linear cause-effect chains that are common in social systems. Conclusions We conclude that many facets of participatory modelling techniques can align with SLCA across the methodology, particularly if enhanced consideration of stakeholders and their various values is desired. We recommend the further development and inclusion of participatory systems thinking-based frameworks to advance the SLCA methodology with specific reference to the ability to enhance interpretation through the analysis of feedbacks that may not be addressed in current approaches.

Description: Purpose Based on the 2005–2014 developments in the Latin American and the Caribbean region (LAC), this paper aims to understand the conditions’ levels for mainstreaming life cycle assessment/life cycle management (LCA/LCM) and map key next actions. Methods Along the paper, four mainstreaming conditions are analyzed: expansion of LCM/LCA training activities, availability of LCA studies, national LCA database operating, and existence and activity of national life cycle network(s). Assuming that countries with better conditions are in a better position to develop national LCA based regulations, policies are also researched to complement this study. Results and discussion With nine life cycle (LC) networks in 2014, the LAC region has positively developed its networking capacities since 2005 but not the databases area (only one LCA database, Mexicaniuh, is fully operational). It was found that countries with no networks, lack all LCA trainings, studies, and databases. Local capacities are limited which in best case, Chile, does not exceed 18 practitioners per 10 million inhabitants. Based on the total score on mainstreaming conditions, Mexico and Brazil are the most advanced countries, but their markets for LCA professionals are still small (Valdivia et al. 2015 ), which suggests that tailored made strategies are needed for stronger uptake of LCA by industrial sectors. Argentina, Peru, Chile, and Colombia are in the second tier but still lack a critical mass of business cases and the political will to improve their mainstreaming conditions. Conclusions LCA development in the LAC region since 2005 is overall positive but still insufficient to serve the growth of prosperous LCA markets. Well-functioning LC networks are essential to leapfrog LCA. In 2014, about 27 % of LAC countries counted on a LC network. A common language in the region (except for Portuguese in Brazil) has been instrumental for expanding LCA through regional cooperation. LCA-based policies are boosted when local capacities and databases are available following the cases of Mexico, Chile, and Brazil. More data and research are needed to understand the women role in advancing LCA and the causalities and motivations of LAC companies to decide for LCA implementation. The application of the methodology was possible thanks to good quality data available and delivered key findings to develop national road maps for advancing LCA. No indicator used is specific for the LAC region and similar exercises are encouraged in other regions such as Africa and Asia.

Description: Purpose Life cycle assessment aims to evaluate multiple kinds of environmental impact associated with a product or process across its life cycle. Objective evaluation is a common goal, though the community recognizes that implicit valuations of diverse impacts resulting from analytical choices and choice of subject matter are present. This research evaluates whether these implicit valuations lead to detectable priority shifts in the published English language academic LCA literature over time. Methods A near-comprehensive investigation of the LCA literature is undertaken by applying a text mining technique known as topic modeling to over 8200 environment-related LCA journal article titles and abstracts published between 1995 and 2014. Results and discussion Topic modeling using MALLET software and manual validation shows that over time, the LCA literature reflects a dramatic proportional increase in attention to climate change and a corresponding decline in attention to human and ecosystem health impacts, accentuated by rapid growth of the LCA literature. This result indicates an implicit prioritization of climate over other impact categories, a field-scale trend that appears to originate mostly in the broader environmental community rather than the LCA methodological community. Reasons for proportionally increasing publication of climate-related LCA might include the relative robustness of greenhouse gas emissions as an environmental impact indicator, a correlation with funding priorities, researcher interest in supporting active policy debates, or a revealed priority on climate versus other environmental impacts in the scholarly community. Conclusions As LCA becomes more widespread, recognizing and addressing the fact that analyses are not objective becomes correspondingly more important. Given the emergence of implicit prioritizations in the LCA literature, such as the impact prioritization of climate identified here with the use of computational tools, this work recommends the development and use of techniques that make impact prioritization explicit and enable consistent analysis of result sensitivity to value judgments. Explicit prioritization can improve transparency while enabling more systematic investigation of the effects of value choices on how LCA results are used.

Description: Purpose Despite a mature debate on the importance of a time-dependent account of carbon fluxes in life cycle assessments (LCA) of forestry products, static accounts of fluxes are still common. Time-explicit inventory of carbon fluxes is not available to LCA practitioners, since the most commonly used life cycle inventory (LCI) databases use a static approach. Existing forest models are typically applied to specific study fields for which the detailed input parameters required are available. This paper presents a simplified parametric model to obtain a time-explicit balanced account of the carbon fluxes in a forest for use in LCA. The model was applied to the case of spruce as an example. Methods The model calculated endogenous and exogenous carbon fluxes in tons of carbon per hectare. It was designed to allow users to choose (a) the carbon pools to be included in the analysis (aboveground and belowground carbon pools, only aboveground carbon or only carbon in stem); (b) a linear or sigmoidal dynamic function describing biomass growth; (c) a sigmoidal, negative exponential or linear dynamic function describing independently the decomposition of aboveground and belowground biomass; and (d) the forest management features such as stand type, rotation time, thinning frequency and intensity. Results and discussion The parametric model provides a time-dependent LCI of forest carbon fluxes per unit of product, taking into account the typically limited data available to LCA practitioners, while providing consistent and robust outcomes. The results obtained for the case study were validated with the more complex CO2FIX. The model ensures carbon balance within spatial and time delimitation defined by the user by accounting for the annual biomass degradation and production in each carbon pool. The inventory can be used in LCA studies and coupled with classic indicators (e.g. global warming potential) to accurately determine the climate impacts over time. The model is applicable globally and to any forest management practice. Conclusions This paper proposes a simplified and flexible forest model, which facilitates the implementation in LCA of time-dependent assessments of bio-based products.

Description: Purpose As a first step towards a consistent framework for both individual and comparative life cycle assessment (LCA) of hydrogen energy systems, this work performs a thorough literature review on the methodological choices made in LCA studies of these energy systems. Choices affecting the LCA stages “goal and scope definition”, “life cycle inventory analysis” (LCI) and “life cycle impact assessment” (LCIA) are targeted. Methods This review considers 97 scientific papers published until December 2015, in which 509 original case studies of hydrogen energy systems are found. Based on the hydrogen production process, these case studies are classified into three technological categories: thermochemical, electrochemical and biological. A subdivision based on the scope of the studies is also applied, thus distinguishing case studies addressing hydrogen production only, hydrogen production and use in mobility and hydrogen production and use for power generation. Results and discussion Most of the hydrogen energy systems apply cradle/gate-to-gate boundaries, while cradle/gate-to-grave boundaries are found mainly for hydrogen use in mobility. The functional unit is usually mass- or energy-based for cradle/gate-to-gate studies and travelled distance for cradle/gate-to-grave studies. Multifunctionality is addressed mainly through system expansion and, to a lesser extent, physical allocation. Regarding LCI, scientific literature and life cycle databases are the main data sources for both background and foreground processes. Regarding LCIA, the most common impact categories evaluated are global warming and energy consumption through the IPCC and VDI methods, respectively. The remaining indicators are often evaluated using the CML family methods. The level of agreement of these trends with the available FC-HyGuide guidelines for LCA of hydrogen energy systems depends on the specific methodological aspect considered. Conclusions This review on LCA of hydrogen energy systems succeeded in finding relevant trends in methodological choices, especially regarding the frequent use of system expansion and secondary data under production-oriented attributional approaches. These trends are expected to facilitate methodological decision making in future LCA studies of hydrogen energy systems. Furthermore, this review may provide a basis for the definition of a methodological framework to harmonise the LCA results of hydrogen available so far in the literature.

Description: Purpose The purpose of this work was to develop an indicator framework for the environmental sustainability benchmarking of products produced by the metallurgical industry. Sustainability differentiation has become an important issue for companies throughout the value chain. Differentiation is sometimes not attainable, due to the use of average data, lack of comparative data, certain issues being overshadowed by others, and a very narrow palette of indicators dominating the current sustainability assessments. There is a need for detailed and credible analyses, which show the current status and point out where improvements can be made. The indicator framework is developed to give a comprehensive picture of eco-efficiency, to provide methods that enable relevant comparisons as well as the tools for communicating the results. In this way, the methodology presented in this study aims to make differentiation easier and thus aid companies in driving the development toward more sustainable solutions. Methods The framework is based on the existing indicator framework Gaia Biorefiner, which is primarily intended for bio-based products. In this work, the framework was further developed for application in the metallurgical industry. The indicator framework is built by first looking at the issues, which are critical to the environment and global challenges seen today and which the activities of the metallurgical industry may have an impact on. Based on these issues, suitable indicators are chosen if they exist and built if they do not. The idea is that all indicators in a group form a whole, showing areas of innovation while refraining from aggregating and weighting, which often compromise a comprehensive and objective view. Both qualitative and quantitative indicators are included. The indicators are constructed following the criteria set by the EU and OECD for building indicators. Each indicator further has a benchmark. The rules for building the benchmark are connected to the indicators. Suitable data sources and criteria for the benchmark and the indicators are gathered from literature, publicly available databases, and commercial LCA software. The use of simulation tools for attaining more reliable data is also studied. Results and discussion The result is a visual framework consisting of ten indicator groups with one to five indicators each, totaling up to 31 indicators. These are visualized in a sustainability indicator “flower.” The flower can be further opened up to study each indicator and the reasons behind the results. The sustainability benchmark follows a methodology that is based on utilization of baseline data and sustainability criteria or limits. A simulation approach was included in the methodology to address the problem with data scarcity and data reliability. The status of the environment, current production technologies, location-specific issues, and process-specific issues all affect the result, and the aim of finding relevant comparisons that will support sustainability differentiation is answered by a scalable scoping system. Conclusions A new framework and its concise visualization has been built for assessing the eco-efficiency of products from the metallurgical industry, in a way that aims to answer the needs of the industry. Since there is a baseline, against which each indicator can be benchmarked, a sustainability indicator “flower” can be derived, one of the key innovations of this methodology. This approach goes beyond the usual quantification, as it is also scalable and linked to technology and its fundamental parameters. In part 2, a case study “A case study from the copper industry” tests and illustrates the methodology.

Description: Purpose Sustainability differentiation has become an important issue for companies throughout the value chain. There is thus a need for detailed and credible analyses, which show the current status and point out where improvements can be done and how. The study describes how a comprehensive product-centric eco-efficiency indicator framework can be used to evaluate, benchmark, and communicate the sustainability of a copper production value chain. The indicator framework, together with the suggested data collection and simulation methods, aims at evaluating the whole system, while still enabling a focus on scopes of different width. The status of the environment, current production technologies, location-specific and process-specific issues all play a role in achieving sustainable development. Methods Copper cathode production from copper ore was chosen to exemplify the developed framework. Data sets from a simulation tool were used when available and LCI databases and LCA software were utilized for the remaining steps. The value chain is analyzed and the benchmark for each indicator built according to the new Gaia Refiner indicator framework. This method enables analysis of specific production steps with a higher degree of accuracy. Results and discussion The case study shows how some important environmental sustainability issues in copper production can be analyzed and benchmarked within a product group. Benchmark data is collected and used in the analysis for the selected system scope. Data availability is still an issue and the example shows which areas require more information in this context so that products and value chains can be benchmarked in the future on a more consistent basis. The energy mix, chemical use, and land use contribute to potential environmental sustainability risks within the product benchmarking group, while emissions control shows competitive environmental sustainability advantages for the case study. Conclusions The methodology is shown to work well in highlighting the sustainability advantages and risks of value chains in copper production with the selected system scope in a visual manner through the Sustainability Indicator “Flower.” The importance of a baseline is clear. The effect of the metal ore grade on the results shows that the scalability of the analysis system is very important. Scaling the system scope up will show the differences in varying value chains and scaling the system scope down will show efficiency differences between more similar value chains, thus visualizing where innovation has the biggest impact.

Description: Purpose The 1990s produced two distinct engineering ideologies of sustainability—one emphasizing engineering innovation and the other emphasizing socio-cultural change. The technological change ideology of sustainability refers to engineering reform controlled and directed by engineers themselves—in other words, technological practices can be improved through the application of expertise. The technopolitics’ ideology of sustainability is about engineering challenge ; it places more emphasis on the devolution of expertise from the existing model of engineering and society, and it questions the dominant values of engineering practice. In this article, I present a historico-philosophical perspective on the development of social life cycle assessment (SLCA) to highlight how the dialectic between sustainability and engineering has been defined largely by the ideology of technological change. Methods I provide original historical evidence regarding the roles of key actors and institutions in fitting the life cycle perspective and corporate social responsibility (CSR) into sustainable development. Primary data for this chapter is based on archival materials as well as on 30, in depth, semi-structured interviews with North American and European LCA and SLCA experts. Other primary data were collected from participant observation in SLCA webinars and workshops. Results and discussion Technology is at the heart of SLCA—it is a shared faith in technology as the solution. At the same time, there is growing appreciation amongst SLCA proponents that such technology must be construed more critically. Although it remains a subaltern current within LCA, SLCA is evidence of how technological change and technopolitics are starting to converge and influence each other—a probe toward a more reflective form of engineering discourse and toward the formation of a new hybrid sustainability ideology. Conclusions SLCA, I argue in this article, is an ideological hybrid where there are many spots of dissent and disagreement but also some surprising fundamental alignments between those who see engineering as techniques and those who believe that engineering needs to be socially and politically contextualized. Yet, even as the concepts of sustainable development, CSR, and LCA provide the intellectual and institutional mold within which SLCA becomes conceivable, these concepts may also obscure the historicity of sustainability engineering.

Description: Purpose Environmental life-cycle assessment (LCA) is broadly applied and recently social and economic LCA have emerged. However, the development of a general framework for social LCA is still at an early stage of development. The aims of this paper are to systematically discuss general considerations regarding social LCA, to build a consistent and operationalized framework for a number of indicators and to test the framework through application on a case study. Methods The first step was to define the scope of the framework starting from a comprehensive review of concepts of social sustainability and social well-being, focusing on the conditions potentially affected by large-scale introduction of novel technologies. Secondly, main areas of concern for social well-being were defined. This resulted in the identification of four main areas of concern. The third step was to make an inventory of potential social indicators and select a number of indicators that could make the framework operational. Additionally, factors for weighting and normalization were developed. Results and discussion The framework developed in this paper is based on four categories and 11 indicators and follows a life-cycle perspective. Six of the indicators are quantitative and are assessed using an input-output model linked to databases from the International Labour Organization. The remaining five indicators are qualitative indicators which are mapped using expert elicitation and a literature review. Identified concerns regarding the qualitative indicators are “flagged” and provided alongside the results of the quantitative assessment, which are aggregated into one single score by means of a weighted and normalized arithmetical mean. The paper illustrates the application of the methodology in a case study examining the deployment of carbon capture and storage technologies in Europe. Conclusions The paper presents a framework that can be used to explore potential impacts on social well-being resulting from the large-scale implementation of novel technologies. The selection of a limited number of indicators (11) keeps the methodology simple and transparent. Although the framework provides a useful approach in allowing both quantitative or qualitative identification of potential areas of concern, the results remain highly explorative in nature. The inherent value-laden and context specific nature of social aspects remains one of the key challenges for developing a general applicable framework.

Description: Purpose Oil shale is an unconventional petroleum source that can be produced domestically in the USA. Oil shale resources are primarily located in Utah, Wyoming, and Colorado, within the Colorado River Basin. In this paper, we analyze the life cycle consumptive water use for oil shale production and its impacts on water resources of the Colorado River Basin. Methods The study is focused on life cycle consumptive water use for oil shale development. Consumptive water use is defined as “water that is evaporated, transpired, incorporated into products, or otherwise removed from the immediate water environment.” The analysis includes direct consumptive water requirements to extract, process, and refine shale oil, as well as indirect consumptive water use for generating the electricity associated with the extraction and processing. From the results, strategies for water supply certainty are discussed, and strategies for implementation are suggested. In addition, refining the shale oil outside of the oil shale region (removing the need for local water), using dry cooling systems for electricity generation, and building desalination plants in California (to replace water) are evaluated. Results and discussion Life cycle consumptive water use for oil shale is significant and could impact water availability for consumers in the lower Colorado River Basin. At a level of oil production of 2 million barrels per day, the life cycle consumptive water use would be significant: between 140 and 305 billion gallons (0.4 and 0.9 million acre-ft.) of water per year if surface mining and retorting is done, or between 150 and 340 billion gallons (0.5 and 1 million acre-ft.) of water per year if the Shell in situ process is used. Strategies could be implemented to provide water supply certainty including refining the shale oil outside of the region (removing some need for local water), using dry cooling systems for electricity generation, and building desalination plants in California (to replace water). Conclusions Water supply in the Colorado River Basin could be a primary constraint to the development of oil shale. At a level of oil production of 2 million barrels per day, the life cycle consumptive water use would be significant. Energy companies or governments may want to invest in water management and supply strategies that would eliminate the uncertainty associated with the water availability in the Colorado River Basin for oil shale development.

Description: Purpose In the transportation sector, reducing vehicle weight is a cornerstone strategy to improve the fuel economy and energy efficiency of road vehicles. This study investigated the environmental implications of lightweighting two automotive parts (Ford Taurus front end bolster, Chevrolet Trailblazer/GMC Envoy assist step) using glass-fiber reinforced polymers (GFRP) instead of steel alloys. Methods The cradle-to-grave life cycle assessments (LCAs) for these studies consider a total service life of 150,000 miles for two applications: a 46 % lighter GFRP bolster on the 2010 Ford Taurus that replaced the 2008 steel and GFRP bolster, and a 51 % lighter GFRP running board for the 2007 Chevrolet Trailblazer/GMC Envoy that replaced the previous steel running board including its polymer fasteners. The life cycle stages in these critically reviewed and ISO-compliant LCA studies include the production of upstream materials and energy, product manufacturing, use, and the end-of-life treatment for all materials throughout the life cycle. Results and discussion The results show that the lighter GFRP products performed better than the steel products for global warming potential and primary energy demand for both case studies. In addition, the GFRP bolster performed better for acidification potential. The savings of fuel combustion and production during the use stage of a vehicle far outweigh the environmental impacts of manufacturing or end-of-life. An even greater benefit would be possible if the total weight reduction in the vehicle would be high enough to allow for the reduction of engine displacement or an elongation of gear ratio while maintaining constant vehicle dynamics. These so-called secondary measures allow the fuel savings per unit of mass to be more than doubled and are able to offset the slightly higher acidification potential of the GFRP running board which occurs when only the mass-induced fuel savings are considered. Conclusions The lightweight GFRP components are shown to outperform their steel counterparts over the full life cycle mainly due to the reduced fuel consumption of the vehicle in the use phase. To harvest the benefits of light weighting to their full extent, it is recommended that the sum of all mass reductions in the design process be monitored and, whenever feasible, invested into fuel economy by adapting the drive train while maintaining constant vehicle performance rather than leveraging the weight reduction to improve vehicle dynamics.

Description: Purpose Life cycle assessment (LCA) is a useful tool for quantifying the overall environmental impacts of a product, process, or service. The scientific scope and boundary definition are important to ensure the accuracy of LCA results. Defining the boundary in LCA is difficult and there are no commonly accepted scientific methods yet. The objective of this research is to present a comprehensive discussion of system boundaries in LCA and to develop an appropriate boundary delimitation method. Methods A product system is partitioned into the primary system and interrelated subsystems. The hierarchical relationship of flow and process is clarified by introducing flow- and process-related interventions. A system boundary curve model of the LCA is developed and the threshold rules for judging whether the system boundary satisfies the research requirement are proposed. Quantitative criteria from environmental, technical, geographical and temporal dimensions are presented to limit the boundaries of LCA. An algorithm is developed to identify an appropriate boundary by searching the process tree and evaluating the environmental impact contribution of each process while it is added into the studied system. Results and discussion The difference between a limited system and a theoretically complete system is presented. A case study is conducted on a color TV set to demonstrate and validate the method of boundary identification. The results showed that the overall environmental impact indicator exhibits a slow growth after a certain number of processes considered, and the gradient of the fitting curve trends to zero gradually. According to the threshold rules, a relatively accurate system boundary could be obtained. Conclusions It is found from this research that the system boundary curve describes the growth of life cycle impact assessment (LCIA) results as processes are added. The two threshold rules and identification methods presented can be used to identify system boundary of LCA. The case study demonstrated that the methodology presented in this paper is an effective tool for the boundary identification.

Description: Purpose Land use is a main driver of global biodiversity loss and its environmental relevance is widely recognized in research on life cycle assessment (LCA). The inherent spatial heterogeneity of biodiversity and its non-uniform response to land use requires a regionalized assessment, whereas many LCA applications with globally distributed value chains require a global scale. This paper presents a first approach to quantify land use impacts on biodiversity across different world regions and highlights uncertainties and research needs. Methods The study is based on the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)/Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry (SETAC) land use assessment framework and focuses on occupation impacts, quantified as a biodiversity damage potential (BDP). Species richness of different land use types was compared to a (semi-)natural regional reference situation to calculate relative changes in species richness. Data on multiple species groups were derived from a global quantitative literature review and national biodiversity monitoring data from Switzerland. Differences across land use types, biogeographic regions (i.e., biomes), species groups and data source were statistically analyzed. For a data subset from the biome (sub-)tropical moist broadleaf forest, different species-based biodiversity indicators were calculated and the results compared. Results and discussion An overall negative land use impact was found for all analyzed land use types, but results varied considerably. Different land use impacts across biogeographic regions and taxonomic groups explained some of the variability. The choice of indicator also strongly influenced the results. Relative species richness was less sensitive to land use than indicators that considered similarity of species of the reference and the land use situation. Possible sources of uncertainty, such as choice of indicators and taxonomic groups, land use classification and regionalization are critically discussed and further improvements are suggested. Data on land use impacts were very unevenly distributed across the globe and considerable knowledge gaps on cause–effect chains remain. Conclusions The presented approach allows for a first rough quantification of land use impact on biodiversity in LCA on a global scale. As biodiversity is inherently heterogeneous and data availability is limited, uncertainty of the results is considerable. The presented characterization factors for BDP can approximate land use impacts on biodiversity in LCA studies that are not intended to directly support decision-making on land management practices. For such studies, more detailed and site-dependent assessments are required. To assess overall land use impacts, transformation impacts should additionally be quantified. Therefore, more accurate and regionalized data on regeneration times of ecosystems are needed.

Description: Purpose The paper introduces the publication on “Global Guidance Principles for Life Cycle Assessment Databases”; it focuses on the development of training material and other implementation activities on the publication. Methods The document is the output of the “Shonan Guidance Principles” workshop. The publication provides guidance principles for life cycle assessment (LCA) databases; this includes how to collect raw data, how to develop datasets, and how to manage databases. The publication also addresses questions concerning data documentation and review, coordination among databases, capacity building, and future scenarios. As a next step, the publication is used to prepare training material and other implementation activities. Results The publication was launched at the LCM 2011 Conference. Since then outreach activities have been organized in particular in emerging economies. Further developments with regard to the guidance principles are foreseen as part of a flagship project within phase 3 of the Life Cycle Initiative. Training material is being developed that will include how to set up databases and develop datasets. The topic has been taken up by United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) in its Rio + 20 Voluntary Commitments: UNEP and Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry (SETAC) through the UNEP/SETAC Life Cycle Initiative commit to facilitate improved access to good quality life cycle data and databases as well as expanded use of key environmental indicators that allows the measurement and monitoring of progress towards the environmental sustainability of selected product chains. Conclusions The adoption of the “Global Guidance Principles” publication as a de facto global standard is expected to facilitate the work of database teams, especially, in developing countries, and the collaboration in regional networks. These efforts are supported by the development of training material and other implementation activities.

Description: Purpose The paper provides a late report from the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP)/Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry (SETAC) Life Cycle Initiative workshop “Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA)—where we are, trends, and next steps;” it embeds this report into recent development with regard to the envisaged development of global guidance on environmental life cycle impact assessment indicators and related methodologies. Methods The document is the output of the UNEP/SETAC Life Cycle Initiative’s workshop on “Life Cycle Impact Assessment—where we are, trends, and next steps.” The presentations and discussions held during the workshop reviewed the first two phases of the Life Cycle Initiative and provided an overview of current LCIA activities being conducted by the Initiative, governments and academia, as well as corporate approaches. The outcomes of the workshop are reflected in light of the implementation of the strategy for Phase 3 of the Life Cycle Initiative. Results The range of views provided during the workshop indicated different user needs, with regards to, amongst other things, the required complexity of the LCIA methodology, associated costs, and the selection of LCIA categories depending on environmental priorities. The workshop’s results signified a number of potential focus areas for Phase 3 of the Initiative, including capacity building efforts concerning LCIA in developing countries and emerging economies, the preparation of training materials on LCIA, the production of global guidance on LCIA, and the potential development of a broader sustainability indicators framework. Conclusions These suggestions have been taken into account in the strategy for Phase 3 of the Life Cycle Initiative in two flagship projects, one on global capability development on life cycle approaches and the other on global guidance on environmental life cycle impact assessment indicators. In the context of the latter project, first activities are being organized and planned. Moreover, UNEP has included the recommendations in its Rio + 20 Voluntary Commitments: UNEP and SETAC through the UNEP/SETAC Life Cycle Initiative commit to facilitate improved access to good quality life cycle data and databases as well as expanded use of key environmental indicators that allows the measurement and monitoring of progress towards the environmental sustainability of selected product chains.

Description: Purpose Substantial evidence from numerous studies indicate that Uganda is already experiencing the negative impacts attributed to climate change, manifested by changing and unpredictable weather patterns, with implications to food production, water, and livelihood. Therefore, reducing carbon footprints is a key ingredient in mitigating climate change. However, this requires availability of adequate knowledge and human resource capacities to analyze and manage the carbon dynamics as well as energy-related aspects at all levels of organizations. It is against this background that training activities were designed to equip participants with knowledge and skills on the subject of carbon footprints. Results Participants were exposed to current techniques and methods of estimating and reducing carbon footprints; and equipped with knowledge on pathways for realizing carbon neutral resilient systems. In addition, participants formed a carbon footprint network with a view of sharing experience with other actors elsewhere in this field, and periodically organize similar trainings and other avenues for experience and knowledge sharing.

Description: Purpose This study analyzes the influence of value choices in impact assessment models for human health, such as the choice of time horizon, on life cycle assessment outcomes. Methods For 756 products, the human health damage score is calculated using three sets of characterization factors (CFs). The CFs represent seven human health impact assessment categories: water scarcity, tropospheric ozone formation, particulate matter formation, human toxicity, ionizing radiation, stratospheric ozone depletion, and climate change. Each set of CFs embeds a combination of value choices following the Cultural Theory, and reflects the individualist, hierarchist, or egalitarian perspective. Results We found that the average difference in human health damage score goes from 1 order of magnitude between the individualist and hierarchist perspectives to 2.5 orders of magnitude between the individualist and egalitarian perspectives. The difference in damage score of individual materials among perspectives depends on the combination of emissions driving the impact of both perspectives and can rise up to 5 orders of magnitude. Conclusions The value choices mainly responsible for the differences in results among perspectives are the choice of time horizon and inclusion of highly uncertain effects. A product comparison can be affected when the human health damage score of two products differ less than a factor of 5, or the comparing products largely differ in their emitted substances. Overall, our study implies that value choices in impact assessment modeling can modify the outcomes of a life cycle assessment (LCA) and thus the practical implication of decisions based on the results of an LCA.

Description: Purpose Life cycle impact assessment (LCIA) is a field of active development. The last decade has seen prolific publication of new impact assessment methods covering many different impact categories and providing characterization factors that often deviate from each other for the same substance and impact. The LCA standard ISO 14044 is rather general and unspecific in its requirements and offers little help to the LCA practitioner who needs to make a choice. With the aim to identify the best among existing characterization models and provide recommendations to the LCA practitioner, a study was performed for the Joint Research Centre of the European Commission (JRC). Methods Existing LCIA methods were collected and their individual characterization models identified at both midpoint and endpoint levels and supplemented with other environmental models of potential use for LCIA. No new developments of characterization models or factors were done in the project. From a total of 156 models, 91 were short listed as possible candidates for a recommendation within their impact category. Criteria were developed for analyzing the models within each impact category. The criteria addressed both scientific qualities and stakeholder acceptance. The criteria were reviewed by external experts and stakeholders and applied in a comprehensive analysis of the short-listed characterization models (the total number of criteria varied between 35 and 50 per impact category). For each impact category, the analysis concluded with identification of the best among the existing characterization models. If the identified model was of sufficient quality, it was recommended by the JRC. Analysis and recommendation process involved hearing of both scientific experts and stakeholders. Results and recommendations Recommendations were developed for 14 impact categories at midpoint level, and among these recommendations, three were classified as “satisfactory” while ten were “in need of some improvements” and one was so weak that it has “to be applied with caution.” For some of the impact categories, the classification of the recommended model varied with the type of substance. At endpoint level, recommendations were only found relevant for three impact categories. For the rest, the quality of the existing methods was too weak, and the methods that came out best in the analysis were classified as “interim,” i.e., not recommended by the JRC but suitable to provide an initial basis for further development. Discussion, conclusions, and outlook The level of characterization modeling at midpoint level has improved considerably over the last decade and now also considers important aspects like geographical differentiation and combination of midpoint and endpoint characterization, although the latter is in clear need for further development. With the realization of the potential importance of geographical differentiation comes the need for characterization models that are able to produce characterization factors that are representative for different continents and still support aggregation of impact scores over the whole life cycle. For the impact categories human toxicity and ecotoxicity, we are now able to recommend a model, but the number of chemical substances in common use is so high that there is a need to address the substance data shortage and calculate characterization factors for many new substances. Another unresolved issue is the need for quantitative information about the uncertainties that accompany the characterization factors. This is still only adequately addressed for one or two impact categories at midpoint, and this should be a focus point in future research. The dynamic character of LCIA research means that what is best practice will change quickly in time. The characterization methods presented in this paper represent what was best practice in 2008–2009.

Description: Purpose This study discusses the significance of the use of non-renewable fossil cumulative energy demand (CED) as proxy indicator in the beverage packaging sector, in order to detect those situations in which companies can benefit from the use of proxy indicators before a full life cycle assessment (LCA) application. Starting from a case study of two milk containers, the objectives of this paper are to assess if the use of this inventory indicator can be a suitable proxy indicator both (1) to decide which is the packaging alternative with the lowest environmental impact and (2) to identify the most impacting process units of the two products under study. Method The analysis was made according to ISO14040-44. The goal of the comparative LCA was to evaluate and to compare the potential environmental impacts from cradle to grave of a laminated carton container and a HDPE bottle. The results of the comparative LCA obtained with the non-renewable CED indicator are compared with a selection of impact categories: climate change, particulate matter formation, terrestrial acidification, fossil depletion, photochemical oxidant formation. A further analysis is made for the two products under study in order to determine which are the environmental hot spots in terms of life cycle stages, by the means of a contribution analysis. Results and discussion From the comparative LCA, the use of non-renewable CED revealed to be useful for a screening as the results given by the non-renewable CED indicator are confirmed by all the impact categories considered, even if underestimated. If the aim of the LCA study was to define which is the packaging solution with a lower environmental impact, the choice of this inventory indicator could have led to the same decision as if a comprehensive LCIA method was used. The contribution analysis, focusing on the identification of environmental hot spots in the packaging value chain, revealed that the choice of an inventory indicator as non-renewable CED can lead to misleading results, if compared with another impact category, such as climate change. Conclusions As in the future development of beverage packaging system, LCA will be necessarily integrated in the design process, it is important to define other ways of simplifying its application and spread its use among companies. The LCI indicator non-renewable fossil CED can effectively be used in order to obtain a preliminary estimation of the life cycle environmental impacts of two or more competing products in the beverage packaging sector.

Description: Purpose There has been lively debate, especially in Finland and Sweden, on the climate impacts of peat fuel. Previous studies of peat fuel's life-cycle climate impacts were controversial in their interpretation. The aim of this paper is conclusive examination of the issues of LCA methodology, derived from critical review of previous studies and recalculation based on the latest knowledge of greenhouse gas balances related to peat fuel’s utilisation and the radiative forcing impacts of greenhouse gases. Methods The most recent findings on emissions and the gas fluxes between soil, vegetation and atmosphere were used in calculation of the life-cycle climate impacts of the various peat fuel utilisation chains by means of LCA methodology. In the main, the calculation methods and rules were the same as in the previous studies, with the aim being to distinguish the impact of peat fuel’s utilisation from that of the natural or semi-natural situation. A dynamic method was employed for assessing changes in radiative forcing. The results of alternative peat fuel utilisation chains were compared to the corresponding result for coal. Results There are many steps in peat fuel LCA, where different assumptions lead to different outcomes. Determining the functional unit, reference situations and system boundaries, as well as the emission calculation methods, is important from this point of view. Determination of the initial reference situation emerged as one of the critical points in the calculations. Time scale can strongly affect the final outcomes in a study where effects of long-term land-use change are considered. Conclusions Each peatland area is unique. The higher the greenhouse gas emissions in the initial reference situation, the greater is the climate impact of the area and the more suitable the area is for peat extraction. The study showed that more greenhouse gas flux measurements are needed, for better assessment of the climate impacts of different potential peat extraction sites. Climate change mitigation requires quick actions, and uncertainties related to emissions are higher for longer time spans. Therefore, it can be concluded that a perspective spanning more than 100 years is inappropriate in peat fuel's life-cycle climate impact assessments.

Description: Purpose Political interest in the future availability of natural resources has spiked recently, with new documents from the European Union, United Nations Environment Programme and the US National Research Council assessing the supply situation of key raw materials. As resource efficiency is considered a key element for sustainable development, suitable methods to address sustainability of resource use are increasingly needed. Life cycle thinking and assessment may play a principal role here. Nonetheless, the extent to which current life cycle impact assessment methods are capable to answer to resource sustainability challenges is widely debated. The aim of this paper is to present key elements of the ongoing discussion, contributing to the future development of more robust and comprehensive methods for evaluating resources in the life cycle assessment (LCA) context. Methods We systematically review current impact assessment methods dealing with resources, identifying areas of improvement. Three key issues for sustainability assessment of resources are examined: renewability, recyclability and criticality; this is complemented by a cross-comparison of methodological features and completeness of resource coverage. Results and discussion The approach of LCA to resource depletion is characterised by a lack of consensus on methodology and on the relative ranking of resource depletion impacts as can be seen from a comparison of characterisation factors. The examined models yield vastly different characterisations of the impacts from resource depletion and show gaps in the number and types of resources covered. Conclusions Key areas of improvement are identified and discussed. Firstly, biotic resources and their renewal rates have so far received relatively little regard within LCA; secondly, the debate on critical raw materials and the opportunity of introducing criticality within LCA is controversial and requires further effort for a conciliating vision and indicators. We identify points where current methods can be expanded to accommodate these issues and cover a wider range of natural resources.

Description: Purpose The purse seine fishery for sardine is the most important fishery in Portugal. The aim of the present study is to assess the environmental impacts of sardine fished by the Portuguese fleet and to analyse a number of variables such as vessel size and time scale. An additional goal was to incorporate fishery-specific impact categories in the case study. Methods Life Cycle Assessment methodology was applied, and data were collected from nine vessels, which represented around 10 % of the landings. Vessels were divided into two length categories, above and below 12 m, and data were obtained for the years 2005 to 2010. The study was limited to the fishing phase only. The standard impact categories included were energy use, global warming potential, eutrophication potential, acidification potential and ozone depletion potential. The fishery-specific impact categories were overfishing, overfishedness, lost potential yield, mean trophic level and the primary production required, and were quantified as much as possible. Results and discussion The landings from the data set were constituted mainly by sardine (91 %), and the remainders were other small pelagic species (e.g. horse mackerel). The most important input was the fuel, and both vessel categories had the same fuel consumption per catch 0.11 l/kg. Average greenhouse gas emissions (carbon footprint) were 0.36 kg CO 2 eq. per kilo sardine landed. The fuel use varied between years, and variability between months can be even higher. Fishing mortality has increased, and the spawning stock biomass has decreased resulting in consequential overfishing for 2010. A correlation between fuel use and stock biomass was not found, and the stock condition does not seem to directly influence the global warming potential in this fishery. Discards were primarily non-target small pelagic species, and there was also mortality of target species resulting from slipping. The seafloor impact was considered to be insignificant due to the fishing method. Conclusions The assessment of the Portuguese purse seine fishery resulted in no difference regarding fuel use between large and small vessels, but differences were found between years. The stock has declined, and it has produced below maximum sustainable yield. By-catch and discard data were missing but may be substantial. Even being difficult to quantify, fishery impact categories complement the environmental results with biological information and precaution is need in relation to the stock management. The sardine carbon footprint from Portuguese purse seine was lower than that of other commercial species reported in.

Description: Purpose Proper recycling of mobile phones and other electronic products is important in order to reduce the generation of large amounts of hazardous waste, lessen environmental and social problems associated to the extraction of minerals and primary production of materials, and also minimize the depletion of scarce materials that are often difficult to substitute. Current material recovery processes are used to recycle electronic waste of various compositions. Methods Based on a review of the recycling processes and material flow analysis (MFA), we attribute the material and energy required to recover metals from 1 tonne of discarded mobile phones. Results and discussion We estimate that the recovery rates of gold, palladium, silver, copper, nickel, lead, antimony, and tin from the recycling processes described are 80 to 99 % (16.4 % of the phone in weight). The two main industrial processes used at present time (pyrometallurgical and combined pyro-hydrometallurgical) have similar energy consumptions (7,763 and 7,568 MJ/tonne of mobile phones, respectively). An average tonne of used mobile phones represents a potential of 128 kg of copper, 0.347 kg of gold, 0.15 kg of palladium, 3.63 kg of silver, 15 kg of nickel, 6 kg of lead, 1 kg of antimony, and 10 kg of tin as well as other metals that are not yet profitable to recover but might be in the future. Conclusions We find that the energy consumed to recover copper from mobile phones is half of that needed for copper primary extraction and similar or greater energy savings for precious metal refining. Nevertheless, only 2.5 % of mobile phones arrive to industrial recovery facilities. There is a great potential to increase the amount of metals being recovered, thereby reducing energy consumption and increasing resource efficiency.

Description: Purpose European pilchard captures constitute an important source of income for the Portuguese fishing sector. This raw material is used for a varied range of final seafood products, such as canning, fresh seafood consumption or bait for other fisheries. The Portuguese purse seining fleet, which concentrates most of the pilchard landings, has recently obtained the Marine Stewardship Council certification scheme, demonstrating the effort of the fleet to comply with sustainable fishing practices. However, this scheme does not consider the human inputs to the fishery, such as fuel consumption or the use of other materials and resources. Consequently, life-cycle methods, such as Life Cycle Assessment (LCA), have arisen to provide a thorough assessment of the environmental profile of fishing fleets. In the current study, LCA is combined with Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA), a management tool, in order to understand the eco-efficiency of the individual vessels that compose this fleet. Methods A 5-step LCA + DEA method, previously used to assess resembling vessel samples, was used to examine the efficiency of 20 purse seiners in the northern Portugal for years 2011 and 2012. Individual Life Cycle Inventories (LCIs) were gathered for each vessel to perform, thereafter, the Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA). DEA matrices were generated based on the LCI in order to obtain the efficiency values for each unit. Finally, based on the efficiency projections provided by the DEA model, a new LCIA was performed for inefficient vessels in order to calculate the potential environmental benefits of operating at higher levels of efficiency. Results and discussion The average efficiency of the fleet in the two different years of assessment was slightly above 60 %. Moreover, individual vessels showed a fairly low standard deviation across the 2 years of assessment, demonstrating that units with higher levels of efficiency tend to maintain these values through the analysed window. In fact, this result, given its strong correlation with fuel use, appears to have relation with the existence of a certain level of “skipper effect”. Important environmental benefits, mainly linked to the optimisation of fuel resources, could be attained if inefficient vessels were to operate efficiently, especially in terms of two main impact categories: climate change and fossil depletion. Conclusions The results in this study confirm that fishing small-pelagic fish shows low energy intensity as compared to other fisheries. However, despite this worldwide tendency, the use of LCA + DEA confirms that substantial improvements in terms of optimising energy and material inputs, as well as in reducing environmental impacts, can be attained in these fishing fleets.

Description: Purpose The use and emission of chemicals and the intrinsic toxic properties of some of these chemicals are an important topic in the textile industry. Quantitative evaluation of toxic impacts is a life cycle assessment (LCA) approach, termed “toxic footprint” in this article. We ask whether calculation of toxic footprints is a useful method to steer the textile industry towards more sustainable use of chemicals. Methods Three different methods by which strategic product toxicity assessment can be performed within the context of LCA are illustrated and compared using a wet treatment process for a cotton T-shirt as the basis of a case study. The methods are the USEtox model chosen for the European Product Environmental Footprint work, the Score System presented in the European Commission’s Reference Document on Best Available Techniques for the Textiles Industry, and the Strategy Tool presented by Askham. The methods are compared in terms of their ease of use and whether the results give a consistent evaluation of a set of chemicals. Results and discussion New USEtox characterisation factors for textile chemicals were calculated and used for this article. The results show that the three methods do not give a consistent evaluation of the different wet treatment chemicals. Both the Score System and the Strategy Tool are very concerned with persistent contaminants such as the optical brightener in this case study, which is deemed to be less important by USEtox. The calculations also show how the results generated by the USEtox model depend on whether users apply (1) only the recommended characterisation factors or (2) these and the interim characterisation factors or (3) these and the new characterisation factors calculated for this article. Conclusions and recommendations With current policy initiatives such as the Product Environmental Footprint now being applied for textile products, toxicity assessment will by default be performed in the LCA of textiles. It is important that the results are relevant and representative as the intended users are supposed to take actions based on them. Confidence in the results is crucial for a scientific method, and therefore, this exploratory comparison exercise shows how benchmarking can be a tool to make the differences in background assumptions explicit, to better understand the differences in the results, and help create such confidence.

Description: Purpose The goal of this study is to identify which processes contribute most to fuel CO 2 e emissions, energy use, and employment generation when driving a typical Brazilian flex fuel vehicle (FFV) model with bagasse-derived ethanol. A hybrid life cycle assessment (LCA) is used to report the associated impacts and a structural path analysis (SPA) is utilized to identify, quantify, and rank the highest carbon emissions, energy use, and employment generation input paths in the supply chain of bagasse-derived ethanol. Additionally, this study explores the integrated hybrid LCA approach as a tool to explain the economic impacts of bagasse-derived ethanol. Methods Hybrid LCA links process-based and input–output-based analyses into a consistent mathematical framework, thereby allowing the incorporation of economic factors into an environmental intervention matrix. The functional unit used in this study is a travel of 500 km with hydrated bagasse-derived ethanol in a Brazilian average FFV 1.0. Results and discussion The total CO 2 e emission is 55.4 kg, with 40 % of the emissions from lime and enzyme production and the sugarcane production for bagasse (agricultural phase). The sulfuric acid, lime, and the agricultural phase are identified as the most intensive energy consumers, representing approximately 50 % of the total energy used. From the economic perspective, commerce and services, ethanol industrial, and agricultural phase generate the greatest number of jobs in this bagasse-derived ethanol life cycle. Conclusions The focus has shifted from first-generation biofuels to more advanced technologies. The results illustrate the importance of a complete life cycle vision for assessing the sustainability of a biofuel. Agricultural biomass production is identified as relevant in all environmental and economic impact categories assessed here. Integrated hybrid LCA was used as an analytical tool capable of assessing the product’s sustainability performance, based on the fact that its mathematical framework allows the incorporation of economic and environmental coefficients into a single intervention matrix using a combined database.

Description: Purpose The aim of this paper is to analyse the potential green practices that can be adopted onboard a cruise ship in order to enhance the environmental performance of the cruise with particular attention to paper input and output flows in a waste minimization perspective. Methods A comparative life cycle assessment (LCA) of management scenarios of paper streams onboard a cruise ship is performed. The potential environmental impacts due to three strategic choices about paper and paper waste management onboard a case-study ship have been investigated through a so-called difference analysis, i.e. the digitalization of the daily information journal Today , the reduction of toilet paper and paper towels through the installation of auto-cut single extraction dispensers and the reduction of printing paper through dissemination of specific guidelines. In order to compare each scenario with the reference case in absence of the practice implementation, the functional unit in this study has been defined as 1 day of cruise. Results and discussion The implementation of the analysed green practices show comparable environmental benefits onboard a pilot ship, on the basis the set of assumptions and hypothesis identified in this simulation. In particular, when comparing the potential GHG emission reductions, it results that the two most realistically feasible scenarios in the communication area, i.e. digitalization of 25 and 50 % shares of Today journal, show environmental savings comparable to measures related to reduction of consumables and guidelines for personnel. Nevertheless, the addition of a reasonable number of touch-screen devices for this purpose would not significantly influence the environmental impacts. Conclusions A set of reduction measures of paper items onboard a cruise ship is able to both avoid the impacts related to production and incineration stages. In the form of forecast scenarios, the results of such modelization may represent a set of indicators to be considered in a feasibility analysis prior to selection of the green practices to be introduced, as a support to decisions for cruise managers.

Description: Purpose Environmental life cycle assessment (LCA) is today an important methodology to quantify the life cycle based environmental impacts of products, services or organisations. Since the very first LCA studies, the cumulative energy demand CED (also called ‘primary energy consumption’) has been one of the key indicators being addressed. Despite its popularity, there is no harmonised approach yet and the standards and guidelines define the cumulative energy demand differently. In this paper, an overview of existing and applied life cycle based energy indicators and a unifying approach to establish characterisation factors for the cumulative energy demand indicator are provided. The CED approaches are illustrated in a building’s LCA case study. Methods The five approaches are classified into two main concepts, namely the energy harvested and the energy harvestable concepts. The two concepts differ by the conversion efficiency of the energy collecting facility. A unifying ‘energy harvested’ approach is proposed based on four theses, which ensure consistent accounting among renewable and non renewable energy resources. Results and discussion The indicator proposed is compared to four other CED indicators, differing in the characterisation factors of fossil and biomass resources (upper or lower heating value), the characterisation factor of uranium and the characterisation factors of renewable energy resources (amount harvested or amount harvestable). The comparison of the five approaches is based on the cumulative energy demand of a newly constructed building of the city of Zürich covering the whole life cycle, including manufacturing and construction, replacement and use phase, and end of life. The cumulative energy demand of the life cycle of the building differs between 336 MJ oil-eq/m 2 a (‘CED uranium low’) and 836 MJ oil-eq/m 2 a (‘CED energy statistics’). The main differences occur in the use phase. The main reason for the large differences in the results are the different concepts to determine the characterisation factors for renewable and nuclear energy resources. Conclusions The energy harvested approach ‘CED standard’ is a consistent approach, which quantifies the energy content of all different (renewable and non-renewable) energy resources. The ‘CED standard’ approach and the impact category indicator results computed with this approach reflect the safeguard subject ‘energy resources’ but not (no other) environmental impacts. The energy harvested approach proposed in this paper can readily be implemented in different contexts and applied to various data sets.

Description: Purpose This paper aims to evaluate and quantify the energy consumption and environmental emissions of a refrigeration compressor produced by a Chinese factory throughout the entire compressor life cycle and try to determine the stage with the strongest environmental impact. The study covers all relevant life cycle stages, from raw material production to compressor use and final disposal. The research is conducted in accordance with ISO 14040/14044 standards. Methods Life cycle assessment (LCA) methodology is applied in this study, and Chinese Life Cycle Database is used for the assessment. The evaluation results are presented in terms of individual impact category according to the characterization model (CML 2001) and normalization references (Laurent et al. 16:401–409, 2011 ). The following seven impact categories are considered: global warming potential, acidification potential, eutrophication potential, photochemical ozone formation potential, ozone depletion potential, ecotoxicity, and primary energy demand. All necessary energy and material flows are detailed for assessment purposes. Results and discussion LCA results show that the compressor use stage in the life cycle consumes the most energy and exerts the strongest environmental impact, followed by the stages of raw material production and component manufacturing. Meanwhile, primary energy demand, ecotoxicity, and global warming potential are three predominant impact categories along with the entire life cycle of the refrigeration compressor; which account for 36.2150, 34.4567, and 16.5862 % of total impacts, respectively. Conclusions Results show that the compressor use stage may be improved given that environmental impact is largely influenced by electricity requirement. Further investigation must be conducted to improve compressor service efficiency.

Description: Purpose Thermal emissions from electric power generation plants can lead to environmental impacts. However, such emissions have neither been comprehensively integrated in life cycle assessment (LCA), a method to quantify environmental impacts throughout the life cycle of a product, nor in water footprinting. This study presents a spatially explicit (0.5 arc degree resolution) fate and effect model for assessing the impact of thermal emissions from power production in the USA on freshwater ecosystems. Methods We developed a two-step regionalized fate model to capture short-range and long-range thermal effects. Effect factors were derived as a function of ambient temperature and used in conjunction with the fate factor to calculate the impacts. The impacts are measured as the potentially disappeared fraction (PDF) of species in the affected freshwater ecosystem volume over time. Results and discussion The long-range freshwater ecosystem impacts are dependent on the distance to sea as well as the ambient temperature, while the short-range effects are mainly influenced by the induced temperature change at the point of mixing. Our analysis showed that 95 % of the modeled grid cells in the USA have an impact of 2.5 × 10 −6 to 2.5 × 10 −4  PDF m 3  years per MJ emitted heat. For natural gas power production, thermal pollution can have a significant contribution to total freshwater ecosystem quality. Conclusions This study shows that thermal effects can be calculated on a spatially explicit level based on background data. It reveals the variability within a large region of the world, covering various geographic regions, and therefore helps generalizing the results for other regions.

Description: Purpose In this paper, a first prototype of the innovative modular air-cooled condenser (MACC) proposed under the EU-funded MACCSol research project (Development and verification of a novel modular air cooled condenser for enhanced concentrated solar power generation) is compared with a water-cooled condenser (WCC) and an air-cooled condenser (ACC) in a reference concentrated solar power (CSP) plant. The aim is to evaluate the complete environmental profile of each cooling option and to highlight the differences in terms of impacts. Methods The life cycle assessment (LCA) methodology is being used in order to evaluate the life cycle impacts of the three condensers. Firstly, the life cycle impacts are evaluated through the most used methods International Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) 2007 and Ecoindicator 99, using the SimaPro 7.3 software. Secondly, the Ecological Scarcity 2006 approach is used, since it takes into account the main issue of CSP plants: freshwater consumption. Results and discussion Results show that the impact of the MACC is comparable with the ACC one and, in particular, it results quite lower according to all the methods used. Evaluating the severity of local impact through the Ecological Scarcity 2006 method, since the site of operation of the condensers is characterized by medium water stress conditions, the WCC is the cooling option with the highest impact. The best cooling solution, instead, is represented by the MACC: its impact, in fact, results halved compared to WCC. The impact of MACC results significantly affected by the transport activity; therefore, the choice of the transport modes represents a key issue to optimize its life cycle impact. Conclusions The LCA analysis carried out definitely shows that the MACC condenser represents a valid alternative to the conventional cooling solutions in regions suitable for CSP plants. In particular, the environmental benefits achievable with the MACC result more evident with the increase of the direct normal irradiance (DNI). The transport activity planning resulted a key issue to further optimize the MACC life cycle impact.

Description: Purpose This paper presents a life cycle inventory (LCI) describing the material and energy demands for constructing and operating a geothermal combined heat and power (GCHP) plant as well as direct emissions of gases, waste water, and waste heat. The data are based on a newly constructed GCHP plant in Iceland, representing the design of both single flash (SF) and double flash (DF) power plants that currently produce the majority of electricity from geothermal plants worldwide. Methods Primary data were collected for the construction, operation, and maintenance of a GCHP plant. As the design and operation of geothermal flash power plants is site-specific due to the different nature of geothermal resources, a method of scaling data to a site specific parameter is proposed to make the LCI available as representative secondary data for such plants. These parameters along with other data identified as site-specific serve as the minimum data to be collected for adjusting the presented data to represent other flash power plants with or without combined heat production. Results The construction stage dominates the material burdens for the electricity and heat production. For the life cycle of electricity, it includes 80 % of diesel fuel use (whereof 96 % originates from well drilling), while 99 % of groundwater is used during the operational stage. The use and composition of geothermal fluid is site-specific but accounts for all direct emissions from the electricity production. The main materials in terms of mass used for the construction of the GCHP plant are water, diesel, steel, cement, asphalt, bentonite, and silica flour. Mineral wool and aluminum were also among the main material contributors. Material and energy burdens per functional unit are generally higher for a SF plant compared with DF plants. For heat production, 1.7 MJ of waste heat from power generation is used to produce 1 MJ of usable heat. Conclusions By presenting LCI data scaled with site-specific parameters, the flexibility of its use is increased as secondary data. However, the collection of primary data for the composition of geothermal fluid and values for site specific parameters is always required to represent local conditions. Thus, the LCI for Hellisheiði GCHP can be regarded as representative data for electricity and heat from geothermal flash power plants.

Description: Purpose Polychlorodibenzo-p-dioxins and -furans (PCDD/Fs) are always produced as undesired impurities and are found in traces in mixtures such as pentachlorophenol (PCP) pole-treating oil. PCDD/Fs were previously shown to follow the oil’s fate by affinity, but life cycle impact assessment (LCIA) has never taken into account such interactions within an organic contaminant mixture. An approach was developed to assess the potential human toxic and aquatic ecotoxic impacts of PCDD/Fs, including the influence of oil on fate. Methods 2,3,7,8-Tetrachlorodibenzodioxin (TCDD) was used as a PCDD/Fs mixture proxy. The new TCDD fate was approximated in two steps: (1) TCDD was considered to follow the oil’s environmental fate and (2) when the oil is degraded, the fraction of nondegraded TCDD carried by oil was considered emitted from the oil’s receiving compartments and distributed into the environment. This distribution generates a new fate factor ( \( \overline{\mathrm{FF}^{\prime }} \) ) matrix, and characterization factors ( \( \overline{\mathrm{CFs}^{\prime }} \) ) are obtained by associating \( \overline{\mathrm{FFs}^{\prime }} \) to exposure and effect factors from the USEtox model. Scenario analyses on TCDD’s degradation kinetic in the oil phase and its affinity for the volatilized oil fraction were conducted, since both mechanisms are poorly documented and weak assumptions were made to model them. Results and discussion The model predicts that the presence of oil increases the transfer of TCDD from air, freshwater, and natural soil into air through oil volatilization. This presence moderately changes the FF values of TCDD for an emission to air, as compared to the significant variations for emissions into freshwater and soil. The most influenced CF eco and CF tox are those for an emission into natural soil, which increase up to one and two order(s) of magnitude, respectively, due to oil influence (CF′ eco  = 5.3E + 04 PAF.m 3 .d/kg and CF′ tox  = 24.3 cases/kg). By reducing degradation kinetics by 50 %, both CFs′ decrease by at least 14 %, and decreasing the affinity of TCDD for volatilization through oil induces important variations of both CFs′ for emissions into freshwater and natural soil. Conclusions An innovative approach was developed to include interactions between co-contaminants, which seem to be significant in the studied situation, in an LCA context. However, the most influent mechanism highlighted by the model—the affinity of PCDD/Fs for the oil volatilized fraction—is poorly documented and modeled based on certain weak and influent assumptions. A better understanding of the PCDD/Fs’ affinity for the volatilized oil fraction is therefore a key issue.

Description: Purpose Numerous strategies have been implemented to reduce the global environmental burden of construction activities in order to achieve sustainable development goals. However, with regard to renovating and retrofitting existing buildings, life cycle assessment (LCA)-based studies mostly focus on the improvement of a building’s energy performance rather than on the structural aspects of the retrofit itself. The present study assesses the life cycle environmental impacts of different replacement options for a typical old flat roof belonging to a masonry building. Three different structural options are considered: reinforced concrete joists and hollow clay blocks, steel joists and concrete slab, and reinforced concrete joists and polystyrene panels. Methods The environmental analysis is based on a new approach wherein the structural and functional properties of a new flat roof are set as fixed requirements for the design of the different replacement options. A cradle-to-grave LCA-based study is then conducted for the environmental assessment of the entire retrofit process, including different waste scenarios. SimaPro software and IMPACT2002+ methodology are used for the LCA analysis, enabling quantification of the environmental impacts of the three flat roofing options by means of 4 endpoint and 15 midpoint indicators. Results and discussion The environmental contribution of each life cycle phase related to the replacement of the old flat roof is assessed. The results demonstrate that within the life cycle of each option, the use phase and the construction phase have the highest environmental impact, ranging from 60 to 70 % and 50 to 80 % of the total burden in the Climate Change/Resources and Human Health/Ecosystem Quality damage categories, respectively. Having initially set structural and functional constraints for the analysis, the results show that any of the different options exhibits an overall lowest environmental performance. Consequently, specific environmental burdens/categories can be identified to optimize the sustainable retrofit design. Conclusions and recommendations The work demonstrates that a comprehensive LCA-based approach can be used to effectively drive the design of structural and functional retrofit operations on existing buildings. This study also shows how a rigorous environmental analysis, conducted by implementing the proposed approach, can influence decision-making for the most sustainable design alternatives.

Description: Introduction Life cycle assessment (LCA) has a technical architecture that limits data interoperability, transparency, and automated integration of external data. More advanced information technologies offer promise for increasing the ease with which information can be synthesized within an LCA framework. Vision A new architecture is described that combines, stores, and annotates data for life cycle assessment. The Resource Description Framework is proposed for managing LCA data. To explore the capabilities of this approach, the LCA Harmonization Tool (LCA-HT) is being developed to map and store data from different sources and to clearly capture user-defined relationships between nomenclatures for easy use. It will enable increased interoperability of LCA data and more structured and automated incorporation of non-LCA data into LCA models. Moving forward The LCA-HT is intended to be a core component of LCA data architecture (a data commons) used by US federal agencies and other data providers to make data representing US conditions more accessible for public use. It will also be used to bring together data from human health exposure models with traditional LCA for evaluating near-field human health risk in the life cycle context to demonstrate the practical advancements possible with this new architecture. The tool will remain open source and freely available.

Description: Purpose Since 1999, there have been advancements in the use of life cycle assessment (LCA) in Mexico. Many of the efforts, such as training, research, and application of life cycle thinking for decision-making, have been carried out across the government, industrial, and academic sectors, but mostly as independent initiatives, without communication or cooperation between the LCA practitioners. This independent approach to LCA has resulted in the perception that LCA advances in Mexico are minimal. However, there have been advancements and notable achievements. This paper presents a review of the history of the application of LCA in Mexico over the past 15 years. Methods Information was obtained from bibliographic research (i.e., scientific journals, conferences proceedings, thesis, national reports), informal interviews, and the experiences of the authors. Results and discussion Results show that up till 2010, the research and academic communities were leading LCA efforts with a focus on waste management topics. After 2010, there was a shift to study energy systems, carbon and water footprint analysis, and the construction sector. In the private sector, early LCA interest came from companies that were heavily invested in international markets and susceptible to growing international and national support for environmental regulation, such as CEMEX, the mining sector, the footwear sector, Mexican Petroleum (PEMEX), and Federal Electricity Commission. Moreover the government sector has attracted international recognition for its National Strategy for Sustainable Consumption and Production, which is based on an LCA approach. Conclusions Accordingly, LCA has thrived and continues to grow in Mexico. However, to improve future LCA studies, policies, and analysis, a national life cycle inventory (LCI) database needs to be developed and maintained, and care will need to be taken to ensure that there is proper guidance and training to safeguard the quality of LCA methods and results,

Description: Purpose Life cycle assessment (LCA) techniques have been developed since the late 1960s in order to analyze environmental impacts of various products or companies. Although LCA techniques of forest production have been already conducted since the early 1990s, consistent and comprehensive LCA studies are still lacking for the forestry sector. In order to support better comparability between LCA studies, we analyzed the problems and differences by conducting a descriptive and quantitative analysis of existing LCA studies of forest production with special focus on Global Warming Potential (GWP). Methods We analyzed 22 different peer-reviewed studies, four original reports and two databases. Important issues were, among others, the goal of the studies, system boundaries, functional units, impact categories and involved processes. In addition, a quantitative analysis was purchased where the results of the GWP of the reviewed studies were analyzed. Results and discussion The studies showed large differences between methodical assumptions and their subsequent results. For the GWP, we found a range of 2.4–59.6 kg CO 2 -equiv.*m −3 over bark (ob; median = 11.8; n  = 41) from site preparation to forest road and 6.3–67.1 kg CO 2 -equiv.*m −3 ob (median = 17.0; n  = 36) from site preparation to plant gate or consumer. Results varied as a function of the included processes and decisive assumptions, e.g., regarding productivity rates or fuel consumption of machineries. Raw wood products are widely declared as “carbon neutral,” but the above-mentioned results show that absolute carbon neutrality is incorrect, although the GWP is low compared with the carbon storage of the raw wood product (range of C-emitted/C-stored in wood is 0.008–0.09 from forest to plant gate or consumer). Thereby, raw wood products can be described as “low emission raw materials” if long-term in situ carbon losses by changed forest management or negative direct or indirect land use change effects (LUC, iLUC) can be excluded. Conclusions In order to realize improved comparisons between LCA studies in the forestry sector in the future, we propose some methodical approaches regarding the harmonization of system boundaries, functional units, considered processes, and allocation assumptions. These proposals could help to specify the description of the forest production outlined in existing Product Category Rules for Environmental Product Declarations (e.g., EN ISO 16485 2014 or EN ISO 15804  2012 ) following EN ISO 14025 ( 2011 ) and for carbon footprinting standards like the Publicly Available Specification (PAS) 2050 ( 2011 ) or the European Environmental Footprinting Initiative.

Description: Purpose The goal of this study is to analyze the environmental improvement brought about by an alternative system for waste management proposed by the Integral-b project, funded by the European Union (EU). Its aim is to treat both used cooking oil (UCO) and organic waste from the restaurant and catering sector in Spain, by biodiesel production and anaerobic digestion, respectively. A cogeneration engine adapted to use glycerin as a fuel is implemented. Methods The functional unit (FU) is the management of the UCO and organic waste from restaurants and catering produced per person and year in Spain. The system proposed (scenario A) is compared to a system consisting of the prevailing management options for the same kind of waste (scenario B). Apart from including biodiesel production from the UCO, this reference scenario assumes that the organic waste is allocated to different streams, according to Spanish statistics. The systems under study generate different coproducts and as such are complex; therefore, system expansion is performed. Different scenario formulations are set to analyze the influence of assumptions regarding coproduct credits in the results. Finally, Monte Carlo simulations are carried out to analyze parameter uncertainty. Results and discussion The environmental benefits caused by scenario A are conditional on the choices regarding coproduct credits. Scenario A causes a reduction of the impact (43–655 %) in most of the scenario formulations when the current levels of UCO collection are considered. However, when higher levels of UCO collection are taken into account for the definition of the FU, scenario B performs better for half of the scenario formulations, due to the increase in the environmental credits from glycerin production. The only impact categories for which scenario A performs unconditionally better than scenario B are global warming and photochemical ozone creation. Parameter uncertainty appears to influence the comparative results to a lesser extent, mainly caused by the parameters involved in avoided processes. Conclusions Although system expansion appears as an option for dealing with the multifunctionality of waste management processes, uncertainty caused by choices must be assessed. Under our scenario assumptions, re-using the glycerol in the system proposed by Integral-b can be detrimental, and the reference scenario results in higher avoided burdens in some scenario formulations. Including glycerin valorization in scenario B should be considered if the biodiesel production keeps increasing in Spain. Analyzing parameter uncertainty helps to provide reliable results.

Description: Purpose This paper studies the influence of the mechanical design of five different induction hob generations (G1 to G5), which are currently installed in several million homes, on the evolution of their environmental impact. Methods Life cycle assessment (LCA) has been applied using SimaPro 8.0.3.14 and EcoInvent v2.2 database. Samples of each design were obtained to generate a life cycle inventory. These induction hobs have been developed and produced in Zaragoza (Spain). The functional unit has been defined as all of the components influenced by the mechanical design of a cooktop with four induction hobs and a width of 60 cm, including every component except the electronic boards and the use phase, as they are not affected by the mechanical design. The limits of the LCA model include the production of the raw materials and energy, the manufacture and production processes, the distribution, and the end of life. Results and discussion This study has revealed that the differences in mechanical design highly affect the environmental impact, especially in the environmental categories of abiotic depletion and human toxicity due to the consumption of copper, steel, and plastics. The manufacturing phase highly affects human toxicity, mainly due to the variation in PPS use. There is a decreasing tendency in the environmental impact from the first (G1) to the last generation (G5), as G5 causes the lowest burden in 8 out of 11 analysed categories. The different generations analysed in this paper show that the compact designs of induction hobs help to decrease the environmental impact, especially thanks to the reduction in wiring lengths. It is also important to enhance the wiring separation at the end-of-life phase, avoiding designs that hinder recycling processes. Conclusions Compact designs and reduced wiring lengths help to reduce the environmental impact. The consumption of copper, steel, aluminium, and polymers creates considerable impact, although the end-of-life phase reduces the burden created by metals, thanks to recycling. Manufacturing processes such as injection moulding also produce a noteworthy impact, especially in ozone layer depletion due to the inclusion of solvents in EcoInvent’s injection moulding dataset. The impact caused by the distribution phase for this product is almost negligible in most categories.

Description: Purpose Pesticides are applied to agricultural fields to optimise crop yield and their global use is substantial. Their consideration in life cycle assessment (LCA) is affected by important inconsistencies between the emission inventory and impact assessment phases of LCA. A clear definition of the delineation between the product system model (life cycle inventory—LCI, technosphere) and the natural environment (life cycle impact assessment—LCIA, ecosphere) is missing and could be established via consensus building. Methods A workshop held in 2013 in Glasgow, UK, had the goal of establishing consensus and creating clear guidelines in the following topics: (1) boundary between emission inventory and impact characterisation model, (2) spatial dimensions and the time periods assumed for the application of substances to open agricultural fields or in greenhouses and (3) emissions to the natural environment and their potential impacts. More than 30 specialists in agrifood LCI, LCIA, risk assessment and ecotoxicology, representing industry, government and academia from 15 countries and four continents, met to discuss and reach consensus. The resulting guidelines target LCA practitioners, data (base) and characterisation method developers, and decision makers. Results and discussion The focus was on defining a clear interface between LCI and LCIA, capable of supporting any goal and scope requirements while avoiding double counting or exclusion of important emission flows/impacts. Consensus was reached accordingly on distinct sets of recommendations for LCI and LCIA, respectively, recommending, for example, that buffer zones should be considered as part of the crop production system and the change in yield be considered. While the spatial dimensions of the field were not fixed, the temporal boundary between dynamic LCI fate modelling and steady-state LCIA fate modelling needs to be defined. Conclusions and recommendations For pesticide application, the inventory should report pesticide identification, crop, mass applied per active ingredient, application method or formulation type, presence of buffer zones, location/country, application time before harvest and crop growth stage during application, adherence with Good Agricultural Practice, and whether the field is considered part of the technosphere or the ecosphere. Additionally, emission fractions to environmental media on-field and off-field should be reported. For LCIA, the directly concerned impact categories and a list of relevant fate and exposure processes were identified. Next steps were identified: (1) establishing default emission fractions to environmental media for integration into LCI databases and (2) interaction among impact model developers to extend current methods with new elements/processes mentioned in the recommendations.

Description: Purpose Phase change materials (PCMs) hold considerable promise for thermal energy storage and reduction of temperature swings in building space, and can reduce reliance on fossil fuel sources for both heating and cooling. Previous studies have evaluated the use of PCMs for energy storage and provided some limited information on the embodied energy of the PCM; however, an important factor that has not fully been addressed until now is the environmental impact of preparation of organic PCMs. This study presents life cycle assessments (LCAs) of two organic, biosourced PCMs for their applications, focusing on embodied energy and CO 2 emissions. Methods Dodecanoic acid produced from palm kernel oil was considered as a PCM for use in a solar thermal water heating application, and ethyl hexadecanoate produced from algae was considered for thermal buffering. The functional units were defined as 1 t of dodecanoic acid PCM and 1 kg of encapsulated ethyl hexadecanoate PCM, respectively. The LCA encompasses all phases in the PCM production: growth and harvesting of the feedstocks, extraction of the oil, treatment of the oil, and separation of singular components. The two PCMs were evaluated in terms of the payback times for their embodied energies and embodied CO 2 under a modeled use phase. Results and discussion The energy payback time for dodecanoic acid in a solar thermal application was found to be less than 2 years. Although production of dodecanoic acid is a net CO 2 emitter, use of this PCM in a solar thermal system can recoup the CO 2 of production in less than a year. Ethyl hexadecanoate produced from algae, considered for use in a thermal buffering wallboard product, would require at least 30 years of use before its energy savings would match its embodied energy, mostly due to the drying step in the production of the PCM. However, ethyl hexadecanoate is a strong sequester of CO 2 at 7.6 t per ton of ethyl hexadecanoate. Conclusions Dodecanoic acid produced from palm kernel oil for use in a solar thermal hot water system appears to be a viable PCM. Its payback time, both for energy and carbon emissions, is under 3 years. On the other hand, the high embodied energy of ethyl hexadecanoate produced from algae gives a prohibitively long payback time for use in domestic thermal buffering applications.

Description: Purpose Current comparative life cycle assessment (LCA) studies claim to answer whether it is better or worse for the environment to change from old to new systems. Most commonly, the attributional LCA (ALCA) is practised despite its limitations to describe market effects. Hence, an attempt is done here to include market effects in the ALCA practice for comparisons in order to improve ALCA. The purpose is neither to investigate which LCA concept, ALCA, consequential LCA or decisional LCA, is the best for comparisons nor which is the best for decision-making. Methods Here, for the first time, a method based on marked changes which can be used for sensitivity checks of comparative ALCAs, advanced ALCA (AALCA) is presented. The new concept of global change mix factors (GCMF) is introduced. The method, based on accessible market data, is applied to previous comparative ALCAs of conductive adhesives, cooling modules used in radio base stations, office computing systems, as well as personal devices usage, here represented by multifunctional smartphones replacing other devices such as digital cameras. Results and discussion The results show that AALCA based on market data improves the understanding and can act as a sensitivity check of comparative ALCA results. For declining markets of products, with relatively high eco-environmental impacts, the difference between comparative AALCA and ALCA can be significant. As AALCA is founded in marginal electricity thinking and uses market data, there are similarities between AALCA and simplistic consequential LCA (CLCA). However, AALCA is not intended to replace CLCA or decisional LCA (DLCA). Conclusions By applying allocation factors, GCMF, based on real or future market changes, the interdependence of global markets and micro-level LCA shifts can be taken into account in comparative micro-level ALCA studies and make them more robust. Further, the sensitivity of using price units instead of physical units, as the basis for the GCMF, should be investigated. The degree to which AALCA and CLCA can complement each other should be examined. Also, the degree to which the GCMF used in AALCA-H address rebound effects should be further explored. The annual eco-environmental impacts of mobile devices towards 2020 are also of interest, and more LCA case studies are welcome.

Description: Purpose The rapid increase in production and usage of fluorescent lamps (FLs) has brought with it a rising concern about potential mercury risk from both FL production and disposal at the end-of-life (EoL) stage. Thus, there is an urgent need for the environmentally sound management of FLs. In order to provide useful information for the development of effective management tools, this study used the life cycle assessment methodology to investigate the environmental performance of FLs in China. Methods This work compares the environmental performance of two types of FLs, linear (LFLs) and compact (CFLs), using the modular life cycle assessment (LCA) based on the international standards of the ISO 14040 series. The operational data applied to the inventory analysis and combined with the information in the Ecoinvent 3.0 databases was obtained by interviews with a local FL manufacturer and a licensed waste FL treatment facility. Results and discussion Results suggest that the chosen linear FL has a lower environmental impact than the compact one. The use stage accounted for the majority (〉94 %) of total environmental impacts, followed by the manufacturing stage. The ballast component was the largest contributor to the environmental impact of CFLs and largely accounted for the difference between CFLs and LFLs in the manufacturing stage. The end-of-life stage can be a benefit to the environment when waste FLs are processed through the proper, licensed disposal enterprises in China. Electricity consumption accounts for more than 94 % of the environmental impact of FLs over their entire life cycle. This can be reduced by 19 % when the electricity used is changed from the Beijing mix to the China mix. Conclusions Results of the life cycle assessment can be used to compare relative environmental impacts of different waste FL treatment technologies and can help policy makers better understand the urgency of the issues calling for their attention.

Description: Purpose Excess phosphorus from fertilizer application and mobilised soil phosphorus from erosion are partially lost to the aquatic environment where they might cause eutrophication. Phosphorus emissions vary spatially and it is the goal of this study to broaden the scope of the existing inventory to the global scale and to increase the spatial resolution by accounting for relevant environmental processes. Methods Phosphorus emissions were estimated globally at a resolution of 5 arc-minutes for 169 crops. Two models were coupled for that purpose. First, the Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE) model was used to determine soil erosion which is the dominant process inducing phosphorus emissions. Second, the Swiss Agricultural Life Cycle Analysis (SALCA) model was applied to estimate the phosphorus emissions from four different processes with erosion being one of them. The emissions as inventory were compared to the ecoinvent database and subsequently translated into environmental impacts on biodiversity via characterisation factors. Additionally, sensitivity and contribution to variance analyses were carried out. Results and discussion Our results suggest that the data in the ecoinvent database, which is widely used for life cycle assessments, underestimate phosphorus emissions by up to an order of magnitude. Furthermore, the contribution to variance analysis highlighted the importance of regionalising both, inventory results and characterisation factors. Conclusions Since the ecoinvent database provides a poor representation of global conditions, we highly recommend using regionalised estimates of phosphorus emissions provided in this study.

Description: Purpose Although the largely used life cycle assessment (LCA) was initially targeted for products, it can also be adapted to the organizational level. The resulting methodology is the so-called organizational LCA (O-LCA), introduced by ISO/TS 14072 and being developed by several initiatives. O-LCA’s object of study is the organization and its value chain; it adopts a life cycle approach and assesses a multi-set of environmental impacts. This paper introduces the methodological framework of O-LCA to researchers and practitioners and focuses particularly on the scoping phase. Methods Here, we discuss the solutions adopted for each identified challenge when accommodating product LCA to organizations. Those critical elements are analyzed and contrasted with main baseline initiatives: primarily product LCA standards and also Organisation Environmental Footprint and GHG Protocol. Additionally, small deviations from ISO/TS 14072 that are proposed by the authors are pointed out and explained. An example was made up to illustrate and support the explanations. Results and discussion O-LCA also follows a four-phase approach, including goal and scope definition, inventory, impact assessment, and interpretation. Although product and O-LCA are comparable, main differences are mostly at the scope level, which is very relevant for the subsequent phases of O-LCA. Function is the main basis for the definition of the unit of analysis in product LCA, while in O-LCA, are the organization and its portfolio, which is unique for each organization. The reporting organization should be described in terms of subject of study, sites that are to be partially or totally considered, and period when the organization is depicted. Finally, as in product LCA, the boundary of the studied system is defined that includes direct and indirect activities along the value chain of the organization. Conclusions Most principles, requirements, and guidelines of product LCA apply for O-LCA, and the major identified differences are at the unit of analysis and boundary definition level. A cross-divergence that affects the perspective of the two methods is that O-LCA is not foreseen for comparative assertions intended to be disclosed to the public.

Description: Purpose Nowadays, environmental sustainability of textile has gained much attention from government and suppliers due to the resource consumption and pollutant emissions. Besides, different consumer behaviors can result in quite different environmental consequences mainly in terms of water and energy consumption. Therefore, it is necessary to systematically evaluate the environmental impacts of textiles from a life cycle perspective to improve the sustainability of textiles especially for China, the biggest producer, exporter, and consumer in the world. Methods This study is conducted according to the International Organizations for Standardization’s (ISO) 14040 standard series. The declared unit is a piece of 100 % cotton short-sleeved T-shirt. The production data mainly come from field investigations of representative mills in China. The use-phase data are mainly from 924 questionnaires of Chinese residents. The secondary data from databases, literatures, and authoritative statistical data are supplemented in case primary data are not available. The potential environmental impacts are evaluated using the CML2001 and USEtox methodologies built into the GaBi version 6.0 software. We determine hotspots throughout the life cycle of the cotton textile considering the impact categories of abiotic depletion, acidification potential, global warming potential, photochemical ozone creation potential, eutrophication potential, water use, and toxicity. Results and discussion The results of the study show that cotton cultivation, dyeing, making-up, and use-phases are the main contributors to the environmental impacts. In particular, fertilizer, pesticide, and water use in cotton cultivation, coal, dyes, and auxiliaries use in dyeing, electricity use in making-up, detergent and water use in washing, and electricity use in spinning are the hotspots based on the life cycle impact assessment (LCIA) results. The use-phase scenario analysis shows that compared with machine washing, electric drying, and ironing share the majority of electricity consumption. Compared with Americans, Chinese washing habits are much more environmental-friendly and bring much lower environmental impacts in the use stage. Conclusions Energy consumption, chemical use, and water use are main contributors to most impact categories, which help us to find hotspots and potential improvements of sustainability.

Description: Purpose Seafood life cycle assessment (LCA) studies have adopted the primary production required (PPR) indicator to account for the impact of these production systems (e.g., capture fisheries or aquaculture) on the ecosystems they harvest wild inputs from. However, there exists a large diversity in the application of methods to calculate PPR, and current practice often does not consider species- and ecosystem-specific factors. Here, we critically examine current practice and propose a refined method for applying the PPR metric in seafood LCAs. Methods We surveyed seafood LCAs that quantify PPR, or its derivatives, to examine the diversity of practice. We then defined and applied a refined method to a case study of the average Norwegian salmon feed in 2012. This refined method incorporates species-specific fishmeal and oil yields, source ecosystem-specific transfer efficiencies and expresses results as a percentage of total ecosystem production that PPR represents. Results were compared to those using previously applied methods based on the literature review, and the impact of uncertainty and natural variability of key input parameters was also assessed using Monte Carlo simulation. Results and discussion From the literature review, most studies do not incorporate species-specific fishmeal and oil yields or ecosystem-specific transfer efficiencies when calculating PPR. Our proposed method, which incorporated source species- and ecosystem-specific values for these parameters, provides far greater resolution of PPR than when employing global average values. When alternative methods to calculate PPR were applied to marine inputs to Norwegian salmon feeds, resulting PPR values were similar for some sources of fishmeal and oil. For other species, such as Atlantic herring from ecosystems with low transfer efficiencies, there was a large divergence in resulting PPR values. For combined inputs to Norwegian salmon feeds in 2012, the refined method resulted in a total PPR value that is three times higher than would result using the currently standard method signaling that previous LCA research may have substantially underestimated the marine biotic impacts of fishery products. Conclusions While there exists a great diversity of practice in the application of the PPR indicator in seafood LCA, the refined method should be adopted for future LCA studies to be more specific to the context of the study.

Description: Purpose The objectives of this study are to develop life cycle impact assessment (LCIA) methods that enable an assessment of the impact on the biodiversity by land use categorized in general land use types and to obtain the implications for an assessment of global land use impact, using the methods in the Life Cycle Impact Assessment Method based on Endpoint Modeling (LIME). Methods Expected Increase in Number of Extinct Species (EINES), which was calculated by summing the increments in extinction risks of each threatened vascular plant species due to land transformation, was used as an indicator of damage to biodiversity. EINES per land use category was calculated using data from the “Threatened Wildlife of Japan, Red Data Book 2nd ed. Volume 8, Vascular Plants” (hereinafter referred to as “RDB”). Results and discussion The EINES of wetlands and grassland was relatively high. The number of species that were assumed to exist in forestland was large; however, the EINES of forestland was relatively low. It was considered to be influenced by the huge area of forestland in Japan. EINES of other land was also relatively high, and it was considered to be the reflection of the existence of species whose habitat is peculiar, such as limestone areas or high mountains. Conclusions Damage factors developed for Japan in this study have broad potential application, as they have more general land use categories than those in LIME 1 and 2; however, it will be necessary to develop damage factors in other countries, taking into account threatened species categories and regional differences in the importance of various land use categories. It is also necessary to accumulate detailed data on threatened species across the planet to develop worldwide damage factors.

Description: Purpose Life cycle inventory (LCI) databases provide generic data on exchange values associated with unit processes. The “ecoinvent” LCI database estimates the uncertainty of all exchange values through the application of the so-called pedigree approach. In the first release of the database, the used uncertainty factors were based on experts’ judgments. In 2013, Ciroth et al. derived empirically based factors. These, however, assumed that the same uncertainty factors could be used for all industrial sectors and fell short of providing basic uncertainty factors. The work presented here aims to overcome these limitations. Methods The proposed methodological framework is based on the assessment of more than 60 data sources (23,200 data points) and the use of Bayesian inference. Using Bayesian inference allows an update of uncertainty factors by systematically combining experts’ judgments and other information we already have about the uncertainty factors with new data. Results and discussion The implementation of the methodology over the data sources results in the definition of new uncertainty factors for all additional uncertainty indicators and for some specific industrial sectors. It also results in the definition of some basic uncertainty factors. In general, the factors obtained are higher than the ones obtained in previous work, which suggests that the experts had initially underestimated uncertainty. Furthermore, the presented methodology can be applied to update uncertainty factors as new data become available. Conclusions In practice, these uncertainty factors can systematically be incorporated in LCI databases as estimates of exchange value uncertainty where more formal uncertainty information is not available. The use of Bayesian inference is applied here to update uncertainty factors but can also be used in other life cycle assessment developments in order to improve experts’ judgments or to update parameter values when new data can be accessed.

Description: Purpose To support the data requirements of stakeholders, the Nickel Institute (NI) conducted a global life cycle impact assessment (LCIA) to show, with indicators, the potential environmental impacts of the production of nickel and ferronickel from mine to refinery gate. A metal industry wide agreed approach on by-products and allocation was applied. Methods Nine companies, comprising 19 operations, contributed data, representing 52 % of global nickel metal production and 40 % of global ferronickel production. All relevant pyro- and hydrometallurgical production routes were considered, across most major nickel-producing regions. Data from Russia, the biggest nickel-producing nation, was included; the Chinese industry did not participate. 2011 was chosen as reference year for data collection. The LCIA applied allocation of impacts of by-products using both economic and mass allocations. A sensitivity analysis was conducted to further understand the relevance and impact of the different allocation approaches. Results and discussion The primary extraction and refining steps are the main contributors to primary energy demand (PED) and global warming potential (GWP), contributing 60 and 70 % to the PED for the production of 1 kg class I nickel and 1 kg nickel in ferronickel, respectively, and over 55 % of the GWP for both nickel products. The PED for 1 kg class 1 nickel was calculated to be 147 MJ, whilst the PED for 1 kg nickel in ferronickel was calculated to be three times higher at 485 MJ. The main factors influencing energy demand in the metallurgical processes are ore grade and ore mineralogy. Sulphidic ore is less energy intensive to process than oxidic ore. Eighty-six percent of the production volume from class 1 nickel producers, in this study, is from sulphidic ore. All ferronickel was produced from oxidic ore. The LCIA results, including a sensitivity analysis of the impact of producers with higher and lower PED, reflect the influence of the production route on energy demand and on environmental impact categories. Conclusions Conformant to relevant ISO standards, and backed-up with a technical and critical review, this LCIA quantifies the environmental impacts associated with the production of the main nickel products. With this study, a sound background dataset for downstream users of nickel has been provided. The Nickel Institute aims to update their data in the coming years to reflect upon changes in technology, energy efficiency, and raw material input.

Description: Purpose Life cycle assessment (LCA) results are often used to communicate the environmental impacts of products and measure environmental performance for comparison between different options on the market. Sensitivity analyses are a routine part of LCA but often used with a narrow focus. In a case study on foodstuff packaging, the environmental performance of two food cartons in comparison with competing packaging solutions, i.e. food cartons, glass jars, steel cans, plastic pots and retortable pouches, was examined. Furthermore, the benefits of additional sensitivity analyses as a tool to model country-specific conditions to extend the applicability of LCA findings across a number of systems were evaluated. Methods A cradle-to-grave LCA in compliance with ISO standards 14040 and 14044 for the European market (EU27 + 2) was performed. The study was accompanied by a critical review process. The choice of the analysed packaging systems was made according to the European market share. Relevant processes were modelled with primary input data wherever possible; otherwise, average data from public LCI databases were applied. A wide range of environmental impact categories were covered: Climate Change, Ozone Depletion Potential, Summer Smog, Acidification, Eutrophication, Human Toxicity: PM10 and Abiotic Resource Depletion. To comply with ISO standards, a sensitivity analysis on allocation was performed. In addition, sensitivity analyses on recycling rates were included. Results and discussion The primary environmental impacts for both food cartons arose from base material production for primary packaging. The environmental performance of the food cartons compared favourably with all competing systems for virtually all examined impact categories, primarily due to the fact that primary packaging materials for food cartons are derived from renewable resources. The additional sensitivity analyses quantifying the influence of end-of-life management did not change overall results yet revealed trajectories that could be indicative of trends in a range of different settings from no to complete recycling. Thus, the additional sensitivity analyses revealed a robust result that may be informative in circumstances that depart from European settings. Conclusions Both food cartons show a superior performance in comparison with alternatives. The sensitivity analyses on recycling rates confirm this result even with very low or high quotas applied. These analyses provide valuable information on how different parameters depending on different geographic scopes may influence the overall results. Future LCA work would benefit from low-effort additional sensitivity analyses to broaden applicability of results and examine the robustness of findings.

Description: Purpose The aim of this study is to compare the life cycle energy and costs derived from the production and occupation of social interest housing models located in two different types of neighborhoods: compact and sprawling. Two neighborhood development alternatives in Mexico City were established and evaluated including the potential impacts analysis of the built environment/infrastructure and the commuting of the occupants. Methods The study includes the conventional phases of a building life cycle (LC)—preoccupation, occupation, and post-occupation—but it was expanded to include a fourth phase, “occupant transportation,” to cover the commuting potential impacts. The methodology consists of four main stages: (1) definition of function, functional unit, and scope; (2) data collection—divided in three main steps: architectural, land costs and transformations, and commuting data; (3) impact assessment—we used software SimaPro v8.0.1 to manage the LC inventory data; and (4) interpretation of results and sensitivity analysis. Results and discussion In the preoccupation phase, the sprawling neighborhood cell (NC) cumulative energy demand (CED) is 30 % larger than the compact NC ones. Regarding the LC costs, land costs strongly impact the compact NC, but when aggregated in the preoccupation phase, the LC costs for the sprawling NC are only 14 % above those of the compact NC. For the occupation phase, results show that the compact NC has lower CED (by 10 %) and LC costs (16 %) than the sprawling NC. The occupant transportation phase plays a highly important role, since it represents up to 28 % of total LC CED and up to 54 % of total LC costs. This phase affects significantly the sprawling NC, which has a 25 % higher CED and doubles LC costs, when compared with the compact NC. Post-occupation phase contributes just in a small proportion of the total CED and LC costs for both NC, since it accounts for 3 % or less of the total energy and LC costs. Overall results show that the compact NC has lower CED and LC costs than the sprawling NC. Conclusions The results show that occupant transportation phase plays a highly important role in the neighborhood performance. Neighborhood development assessment should consider a number of variables beyond CED and costs. However, in order to improve the sector’s energy efficiency and household’s economy, we recommend to consider house location as it can be as important as other energy or cost-reduction actions in neighborhood development.