ALBERT

Note: Masterarbeit, University of Waterloo, 1990 , TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract Acknowledgements List of figures List of tables List of plates preamble CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1.1 PURPOSE AND SCOPE 1.2 LOCATION AND CLIMATE 1.3 GEOLOGICAL SETTING 1.3.1 Bedrock geology 1.3.2 Glacial history 1.3.2 Surficial geology 1.4 PREVIOUS RESEARCH AND PARALLEL STUDIES 1.5 SITE INVESTIGATIONS 1.5.1 Introduction 1.5.2 Water sampling methods 1.5.3 Piezometer methods 1.5.4 Measuring hydraulic conductivity 1.S.S Surface flow monitoring 1.5.6 Seepage meters 1.5.7 Coring and porewater squeezing 1.5.8 Frost table probing 1.5.9 Geological mapping 1.5.10 Weather records 1.5.11 Depth sounding 1.6 ANALYTICAL METHODS AND LABORATORY INVESTIGATIONS 1.6.1 Sample collection, filtration, and alkalinity 1.6.2 Analytical methods 1.6.3 Quality of chemical analyses 1.6.4 Grain-size distributions and organic matter contents in till 1.6.5 Core logging and porewater squeezing 1.6.6 SEM examination of mineral weathering CHAPTER 2: HYDROLOGY AND HYDROGEOLOGY synopsis 2.1 INTRODUCTION 2.2 LOCATION AND CLIMATE 2.3 FIELD AND ANALYTICAL METHODS 2.3.1 Field methods 2.3.2 Analytical methods 2.4 SETTING 2.5 HYDROLOGY 2.5.1 Surface hydrology 2.5.2 Groundwater hydrology 2.5.2.1 Thawing of the active layer 2.5.2.2 Structure and composition of the active layer till 2.5.2.3 Groundwater flow 2.6 DISCUSSION 2.7 CONCLUSIONS CHAPTER 3: A PRELIMINARY ASSESSMENT OF ISOTOPE HYDROLOGY AND GEOCHEMISTRY abstract 3.1 INTRODUCTION 3.2 STUDY AREA 3.3 ANALYTICAL METHODS 3.4 VEGETATION AND ACTIVE LAYER PROPERTIES 3.5 STABLE ISOTOPE DATA 3.6 WATER CHEMISTRY 3.7 SUMMARY CHAPTER 4: ISOTOPIC ANALYSIS OF EVAPORATION synopsis 4.1 INTRODUCTION 4.2 STUDY AREA 4.3 FIELD AND LABORATORY METHODS 4.3.1 Materials and field methods 4.3.2 Analytkal methods 4.4 THEORY 4.4.1 Theoretical development 4.4.2 Basis of this approach 4.5 PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA 4.6 DISCUSSION OF RESULTS 4.7 CONCLUSIONS CHAPTER 5: WATER BALANCE AND GEOCHEMICAL EVALUATIONS abstract 5.l INTRODUCTION 5.2 SETTING 5.3 ANALYTICAL METHODS 5.4 HYDROLOGY 5.5 WATER BALANCE CALCULATIONS 5.6 GEOCHEMISTRY 5.7 DISCUSSION 5.8 CONCLUSIONS CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 6.1 SUMMARY OF CONCLUSIONS 6.2 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH References LIST OF APPENDICES A. Part A: Stable isotope analyses of water samples Part B: Tritium analyses Part C: Field geochemical measurements Part D: Major ion analyses of water samples B. GROUNDWATER SAMPLING FROM PIEZOMETERS C. RELIABILITY OF Eh MEASUREMENTS D. PIEZOMETER DESIGNS/INSTALLATION PROCEDURES Part A: 1988 Part B: 1989 E. HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY TESTING/DATA F. SURFACE FLOW MEASUREMENTS Part 1: Weir Part 2: Stream gauging G. SEEPAGE METER METHODS AND MEASUREMENTS H. CORING AND SQUEEZING METHODS I. CORE AND SOIL PIT DESCRIPTIONS J. LABORATORY INVESTIGATIONS TO ADDRESS WATER QUALITY Part A: Duplicates, blanks, and comparative analyses Part B: Filtration experiment Part C: Dissolved organic carbon Part D: Carbon-13 K. CHEMICAL AND ISOTOPIC ANALYSES OF POREWATERS EXTRACTED FROM CORES L. SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPY OF TILL M. WATER BALANCE THEORY

Note: Masterarbeit, Queen's University (Kingston, Ont.), 1990 , TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT ACKOWLEDGEMENTS LIST OF FIGURES LIST OF TABLES CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1.1 Purpose of Study 1.2 Site Description 1.2.1 Climate 1.2.2 Geology 1.2.3 Late Cenozoic Evolution of the Queen Elizabeth Islands 1.2.4 Origin of Colour Lake 1.2.5 Lake and Basin Morphometry and Morphology CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 General Arctic Limnology 2.1.1 Thermal Regimes and Circulation 2.1.2 Biological Limnology 2.2 Sedimentation in Arctic Lakes 2.2.1 Sedimentary Processes 2.2.2 Deposits 2.3 Phycology and Paleophycology of High Arctic Lakes CHAPTER 3: METHODS 3.1 Basin Factors 3.1.1 Weather 3.1.2 Stream Sampling 3.1.3 Snowmelt, Depth of Ground Thaw, and Soil parameters 3.1.4 Measurement of Mass Wasting 3.2 General Limnology 3.3 Sediment Sampling and Analysis 3.3.1 Sediment Collection 3.3.2 Sediment Analysis 3.3.3 Microfossil Analysis 3.3.3.1 Diatoms and Chrysophytes 3.3.3.2 Chironomids CHAPTER 4: RESULTS 4.1 Basin Factors 4.1.1 Weather 4.1.2 Stream Discharge and Water Quality 4.1.3 Snow, Active Layer Thickness, and Soil Parameters 4.1.4 Mass Wasting 4.1.4.1 Gelifluction survey 4.1.4.2 Mudflows and other Observations 4. 2 Limnology 4.2.1 General Limnology - 1987 4.2.1.1 Lake Temperature 4.2.1.2 Lake Chemistry 4.2.1.3 Water Stage 4.2.1.4 Suspended Sediment 4.2.1.5 Algae 4.2.2 General Limnology - 1988 4.3 Sedimentology 4.3.1 Surficial Sediments 4.3.1.1 Structure and Grain Size 4.3.1.2 Organic Matter 4.3.1.3 Microfossils 4.3.2 Long Cores 4.3.2.1 Structure and Grain Size 4.3.2.2 Organic Matter 4.3.2.3 Dating 4.3.2.4 Microfossils CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION 5.1 Basin Factors 5.1.1 Inflows 5.1.2 Mass Wasting 5.1.2.1 Rates of Soil Movement 5.1.2.2 Gelifluction as a Sediment Source 5.2 Limnology 5.3 Sedimentology 5.3.1 Recent Sedimentary Environment 5.3.2 Late Holocene Sedimentary Environment 5.3.2.1 Signal from Alluvial Fan River 5.3.2.2 Signal from Gelifluction 5.3.2.3 Signal from Lake Ice Cover 5.2.3.4 General Sedimentology 5.2.3.5 Paleophycology 5.3.3 Modelling Colour Lake Sedimentology . CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSIONS REFERENCES APPENDIX A: CORRECTION OF TALL BURIED STAKES APPENDIX B: TEST OF EFFECT OF IGNITION BEFORE SEDIGRAPHING APPENDIX C: DIATOM SPECIES LIST APPENDIX D: SEDIMENT VOLUME IN A SMALL MUDFLOW APPENDIX E: ICE RECORD VITA

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Note: TABLE OF CONTENTS FOREWORD PREFACE LIST OF FIGURES LIST OF TABLES 1. NORTHERN HYDROLOGY: AN OVERVIEW 1.1. Introduction 1.2. Definition of "North" 1.2.1. Physical North 1.2.1.1. Polar Circles 1.2.1.2. Temperature 1.2.1.3. Snow/Ice Covers 1.2.1.4. Frozen Ground 1.2.1.5. Vegetation 1.2.1.6. Run-Off Direction 1.2.1.7. Composite Definition 1.2.1.8. Guideline Definition 1.3. Natural Landscape, Climate and Hydrology 1.3.1. General Landscape 1.3.2. Hydroclimatic Characteristics 1.3 .2.1. Precipitation/Snowcover 1.3.2.2. Drainage/Run-Off 1.3.2.3. Surface Storage 1.3.2.4. Permafrost 1.3.2.5. Ground Water 1.3.2.6. Evaporation/Evapotranspiration 1.3.2.7. Freshwater Ice Cover 1.3.2.8. Data-Collection Networks 1.4. Hydrological Classifications 1.4.1. Church (1974) Classification 1.4.1.1. Arctic-Nival 1.4.1.2. Subarctic-Nival 1.4.1.3. Proglacial 1.4.1.4. Muskeg 1.4.2. Network Classification 1.5. Development and Water Use 1.5.1. Historical Resource Development 1.5.2. Present Resources 1.5.2.1. Hydro-Power 1.5.2.2. Diversions 1.5.2.3. Mining 1.5.2.4. Oil and Gas 1.6. Evolving Issues 1.6.1. Northem Pollution 1.6.2. Global Change Effects 1.6.2.1. Precipitation/Snow/Glaciers 1.6.2.2. Floating Ice 1.6.2.3. Permafrost 1.6.2.4. Other 1.6.3. Monitoring Global Change 1.7. Reflections 2. SNOW HYDROLOGY 2.1. Introduction 2.1.1. Basic Processes 2.1.1.1. Atmospheric Processes 2.1.1.2. Snowcover Formation 2.1.1.3. Snowmelt Run-Off Processes 2.1.1.4. Snowcover Chemistry 2.1.2. Geographical Variations 2.1.2.1. Snowfall 2.1.2.2. Snowcover 2.1.2.3. Nival Streamflow Regimes 2.1.3. Relationship to Other Hydrological Variables 2.2. Historical Background 2.2.1. Snowfall 2.2.2. Snowcover Properties 2.2.3. Snowmelt Run-Off 2.3. Current Research 2.3.1. Blowing Snow 2.3.2. Meltwater Infiltration 2.3.3. Water Flux Through Cold Snowcovers 2.3.4. Remote Sensing 2.3.5. Snow Chemistry 2.3.6. Snow/Ground Interface Temperature 2.3.7. Snow Radiative Properties 2.4. Future Research Needs 2.4.1. Snowfall 2.4.2. Snowcover 2.4.3. Snowmelt 2.4.4. Snowmelt Run-Off 2.4.5. Removal of Solutes from Melting Snowcovers 3. PERMAFROST HYDROLOGY 3.1. Introduction 3.2. Historical Background 3.2.1. Streamflow Studies 3.2.2. Water-Balance Studies 3.2.3. Hillslope Hydrological Studies 3.2.4. Studies of Lake and Wetland Hydrology 3.3. Recent Trends 3.4. Current Research 3 .4.1. Coupling Snowmelt, Infiltration and Soil Moisture 3.4.2. Hydrological Modelling 3.5. Future Research Needs 3.5.1. Regional Hydrology 3.5.2. Climatic Change and Permafrost Hydrology 3.5.2.1. Application of Spatial Analogues 3.5.2.2. Application of Climatic Variability Analogues 3.5.2.3. Use of Simulation Models 4. GROUND-WATER HYDROLOGY 4.1. Introduction 4.1.1. Permafrost 4.1.2. Properties of Frozen Ground and Permafrost 4.1.2.1. Ice and Water Contents 4.1.2.2. Hydraulic Conductivity 4.1.3. Effects on Water Chemistry 4.1.3.1. Low Temperatures 4.1.3.2. Permafrost 4.2. Aquifers in Permafrost Areas 4.2.1. Position Relative to Permafrost 4.2.2. Suprapermafrost Aquifers 4.2.2.1. Subtype I Aquifers 4.2.2.2. Subtype II and III Aquifers 4.2.2.3. Chemical composition of suprapermafrost water 4.2.3. Intrapermafrost Aquifers 4.2.3.1. Open Taliks 4.2.3.2. Lateral Taliks 4.2.3.3. Isolated Taliks 4.2.3.4. Chemical Composition of Intrapermafrost Water 4.2.4. Subpermafrost Aquifers 4.2.4.1. Unconsolidated Deposits 4.2.4.2. Sedimentary Bedrock 4.2.4.3. Karst 4.2.4.4. Igneous and Metamorphic Terrain 4.2.4.5. Chemical Composition of Subpermafrost Water 4.3. Ground-Water Hydrology 4.3.1. Comparison with Non-Permafrost Areas 4.3.2. Infiltration and Ground-Water Recharge 4.3.3. Lateral Movement of Ground Water 4.3.4. Discharge of Ground Water 4.3.4.1. Springs 4.3.4.2. Base Flow 4.3.4.3. Icings 4.3.4.4. Ground-Water Discharge Rates from Icing Volumes 4.3.4.5. Chemical Composition of Icings and Meltwater 4.3.5. Importance of Ground Water 4.3.5.1. Fisheries 4.3.5.2. Vegetation 4.3.5.3. Water Supply 4.3.5.4. Recreation and Space Heating 4.4. Historical Background 4.4.1. Pre-1970 Situation 4.4.2. Recent Advances 4.4.3. Agencies Involved in Recent Research 4.4.4. Incentives for Recent Research 4.5. Current Research 4.6. Future Research Needs 4.6.1. Major Unknowns 4.6.2. Subjects Requiring Research 4.6.3. Future Incentives for Ground-Water Research 4.6.4. Major Impediments 5. HYDROLOGY OF FLOATING ICE 5.1. Introduction 5.2. Ice Processes on Rivers and Lakes: an Overview 5.3. Historical Background 5.3.1. Floods and High Stages 5.3.2. Low Flow 5.3.3. Flow Duration 5.3.4. Flow Measurement 5.4. Current Research 5.4.1. Ice Jams, Break-Up and Freeze-Up 5.4.2. Low Flows 5.4.3. Flow Duration 5.4.4. Flow Measurement 5.5. Future Research Needs 5.5.1. Ice Jams, Break-Up and Freeze-Up 5.5.2. Low Flows 5.5.3. Continuous Simulation 5.5.4. Flow Measurement 5.6. New Research Approaches 5.7. Conclusion 5.8. Acknowledgements 6. GLACIER HYDROLOGY 6.1. Introduction 6.2. Glacier Hydrology: an Overview 6.2.1. Run-Off 6.2.2. Local Variability in Climatic Inputs 6.2.3. Regional Variability 6.2.4. Temporal Variability in Climatic Inputs 6.2.5. Glacier Outburst Floods 6.2.6. Distribution and Characteristics of Canadian Glaciers 6.3. Process and Regional Examples 6.3.1. Typical Run-off Components from a Glacierized Catchment 6.3.2. Western Cordilleran Example - Peyto Glacier 6.3.3.1. Basin Description 6.3.3.2. Meteorological Inputs and Snow-Line Movement 6.3.3.3. Internal Hydrology of the Glacier 6.3.3.4. Specific Yield within the Basin 6.3.3.5. The Resultant Hydrographs 6.3.3.6. Detailed Interrelationship (1970/74) 6.3.4. High-Arctic Example - White Glacier 6.4. A History of Glacier Hydrology Studies 6.4.1. Studies in the Western Cordillera 6.4.2. The Arctic lslands 6.4.3. Studies in the Yukon 6.4.4. Studies in Labrador 6.4.5. The International Hydrological Decade 6.4.6. International Hydrological Programme 6.5. The Main Achievements of Hydrology Studies in Glacierized Basins 6.5.1. Basic Description of Resources 6.5.2. Achievements in Glacier Mass Balance 6.5.3. Achievements in Glacier-Run-Off Studies 6.5.3.1. Meltwater Generation 6.5.3.2. Glacier Outburst Floods 6.5.3.3. Models of Basin Run-Off 6.5.4. Achievements in Surveying and Remote Sensing 6.6. The Future 7. WATER-QUALITY RESEARCH 7.1. Introduction 7 .2. Historical Background 7.2.1. Activities Prior to 1969 7.2.2. Overview ofN.W.T. Water-Quality Network Data 7.2.3. Mackenzie River Basin 7.2.4. Yukon River Basin 7.2.5. Limnological Research Activities near Resolute, Cornwallis Island and at Saqvaqjuac 7.3. Current Research - Long-Range Atmospheric Transport and Deposition 7.4. Future Research Needs 7.5. Acknowledgements 8. THE REGIONAL ENERGY BALANCE 8.1. Introduction 8.1.1. Basic Processes 8.1.2. Regional Variations 8.1.3. Relationship to Other Hydrological Variables 8.1.4. Importance to the Northern Environment 8.2. Historical Background 8.2.1. Subarctic 8.2.2. Arctic Tundra 8.2.3. Glacierized Basins 8.3. Current Research 8.4. Future Research Needs 9. REGIONAL HYDROLOGY 9.1. Introduction 9.2. Hydrological Regions 9.2.1. Shawinigan Engineering Studies 9.2.2 Acres Consulting Services Ltd 9 .2.2.1. Annual Yield 9.2.2.2. Low Flow 9.2.2.3. Floods 9.2.3. Joint DOE-DIAND Studies 9.2.4. 1985-86 IWD Network Evaluation in Western and Northern Region 9.2.5 The Maekenzie River Basin Flow Model 9.3. River Elements in the Northern Hydrological Cycle 9.3.1. Snowfall Components 9.3.2. Ice Proeesses and Northem Streamflow 9.3.2.1. The Freeze-Up 9.3.2.2. Midwinter Flows 9.3.2.3. Streamflow in the Annual Break-Up 9.4. Northern Streamflow Data Collection 9.5. Conclusions 10. WATER MANAGEMENT NORTH OF 60° 10.1. lntroduction 10.2. Legislative Framework 10.3. Water Boards 10.4. Licensing and Authorization 10.4.1. Lieensing 10.4.2. Authorization 10.5. Enforcement 10.6. Data Collection 10.6.1. Water Quantity 10.6.2. Water Quality 10.6.3. Preeipitation 10.7. Planning 10.7.1. Comprehensive Planning 10.7.2. Integrated Planning 10.8. Major Ma

Note: Zugl.: Berlin, Freie Univ., Habil.-Schr.

Note: Preface Introduction Magmatic and hydrothermal processes in ore-bearing systems Judith L. Hannah and Holly J. Stein Theoretical and Experimental Studies Theoretical contraints on the chemistry of the magmatic aqueous phase Philip A. Candela Partitioning of F and Cl between magmatic hydrothermal fluids and highly evolved granitic magma James D. Webster and John R. Holloway Internal differentiation of rare-element pegmatites; A synthesis of recent research David London Fluorine-rich Granite-Rhyolite Systems The petrogenetic and metallogenetic significance of topaz granite from the southwest England orefield D.A.C. Manning and P. I. Hill The role of fluorine in the petrogenesis of magmatic segregations in the SL Francois volcano-plutonic terrane, southeastern Missouri P. I. Nabelek and C. Russ-Nabelek Melt inclusions in the quartz phenocrysts of rhyolites from Topaz and Keg Mountains, Thomas Range, Utah Christine Payette and Robert F. Martin Rare-metal enriched peralumininous rhyolites in a continental arc, Sierra Bianca area, Trans-Pecos Texas; Chemical modification by vapor-phase crystallization Jonathan G. Price, Jeffrey N. Rubin, Christopher D. Henry, Thomas L. Pinkston, Steven W. Tweedy, and David W. Koppenaal Tin and Tungsten-bearing Granitoids Comparative petrologic evolution of the Sn and W granites of the Fairbanks-Circle area, interior Alaska R. J. Newberry, L. E. Bums, S. E. Swanson, and T. E. Smith Mineralogical variation as a guide to the petrogenesis of the tin granites and related skarns, Seward Peninsula, Alaska Samuel E. Swanson, Rainer J. Newberry, Gary A. Coulter, and Thomas M. Dyehouse Geochemistry of highly fractionated I- and S-type granites from the tin-tungsten province of western Tasmania W. N. Sawka, M. T. Heizler, R. W. Kistler, and B. W. Chappell Genesis and fluid evolution of the East Kemptville greisen-hosted tin mine, southwestern Nova Scotia, Canada Jean M. Richardson, Keith Bell, David H. Watkinson, and John Blenkinsop Mica chemistry as an indicator of oxygen and halogen fugacities in the CanTung and other W-related granitoids in the North American Cordillera W. T. van Middelaar and J. D. Keith The Black Pearl mine, Arizona; Wolframite veins and stockscheider pegmatite related to an albitic stock Christopher Schmitz and Donald M. Burt Tin-bearing Rhyolites, Black Range, New Mexico Genesis of the rhyolite-hosted tin occurrences in the Black Range, New Mexico, as indicated by stable isotope studies Robert O. Rye, John L. Lufkin, and Michael D. Wasserman Eruptive fountains of silicic magma and their possible effects on the tin content of fountain-fed lavas, Taylor Creek Rhyolite, New Mexico Wendell A. Duffield Origin of Taylor Creek rhyolite magma, Black Range, New Mexico, based on Nd-Sr isotope studies Cadi Reece, Joaquin Ruiz, Wendell A. Duffield, and P. Jonathan Patchett Other Pre-Tertiary Granitoid Examples Petrogenesis of the Proterozoic rapakivi granites of Finland Ilmari Haapala and O. Tapani Rämö The Topsails igneous suite, western Newfoundland; Fractionation and magma mixing in an "orogenic" A-type granite suite Joseph B. Whalen and Kenneth L. Currie Anorogenic, bimodal emplacement of anorthositic, charnockitic, and related rocks in the Adirondack Mountains, New York James McLelland and Philip Whitney Geochemistry and metallogeny of Arizona peraluminous granitoids with reference to Appalachian and European occurrences Anne L. Shaw and John M. Guilbert Index