ALBERT

Note: Inhalt Vorwort und Dank Widmung Frühes Wissen um den Nordpol Der Globus des Johannes Schöner von 1515 Theodor de Bry als Verleger von Barentsz und Hudsons Polarfahrten Die Globen von Andreae (1717), Doppelmayr (1730 und 1792) und Klinger (1792) in der Frankfurter Stadtbibliothek »Zwei Grönländer« im Prehn'schen Kabinett Die Nordfahrt des Georg Berna 1861 Das Personal Die Reise Der Beginn deutscher Polarforschung Das offene Polarmeer? Die erste Versammlung Deutscher Meister und Freunde der Erdkunde am 23. und 24. Juli 1865 in Frankfurt am Main Die Erste Deutsche Nordpolar-Expedition von 1868 Die Zweite Deutsche Nordpolar-Expedition von 1869/1870 Die Österreich-Ungarische Nordpolar-Expedition von 1872-1874 Julius Payer vor 1871 Carl Weyprecht vor 1871 Die Vorexpedition von 1871 Die Österreich-Ungarische Nordpolar-Expedition von 1872 bis 1874 Carl Weyprecht nach 1874: Die Begründung der Internationalen Polarjahre Julius Payer nach 1874 Nachruhm Erstes Internationales Polarjahr und Kontinentalverschiebung Das Erste Internationale Polarjahr Der Frankfurter Verein für Geographie und Statistik Die Senckenbergische Naturforschende Gesellschaft Theodor Lerner, Polarfahrer Andrée, »Fauna Árctica« und die Bäreninsel Eine Überwinterung auf Spitzbergen Die Rettungsexpedition von 1913 Forschen für Senckenberg Auf nach Grönland! Die Erste Hessische Grönlandexpedition von Hans Krüger und Fritz Klute 1925 Waldemar Coste und der Film »Milak der Grönlandjäger« 1926 Die Zweite Hessische Grönlandexpedition 1929/1930 und das Verschwinden Hans Krügers Friedrich Sieburg und Anne Schmücker als Propagandisten Grönlands Johannes Georgi »im Eis vergraben« 1930/1931 Die Internationalen Polarjahre Und der Südpol? Georg von Neumayers unermüdliche Agitation Die drei deutschen Expeditionen in antarktische Gewässer Anhang Literaturverzeichnis Abbildungsverzeichnis Impressum

Note: Contents Executive summary Overview Arctic climate change Key findings of this assessment 1. Atmospheric circulation feedbacks 2. Ocean circulation feedbacks 3. Ice sheets and sea-level rise feedbacks 4. Marine carbon cycle feedbacks 5. Land carbon cycle feedbacks 6. Methane hydrate feedbacks Author team

Note: Contents Preface Part I Anatomy of a cyclone 1 Anatomy of a cyclone 1.1 A 'typical' extra-tropical cyclone 1.2 Describing the atmosphere 1.3 Air masses and fronts 1.4 The structure of a typical extra-tropical cyclone Review questions 2 Mathematical methods in fluid dynamics 2.1 Scalars and vectors 2.2 The algebra of vectors 2.3 Scalar and vector fields 2.4 Coordinate systems on the Earth 2.5 Gradients of vectors 2.6 Line and surface integrals 2.7 Eulerian and Lagrangian frames of reference 2.8 Advection Review questions 3 Properties of fluids 3.1 Solids, liquids, and gases 3.2 Thermodynamic properties of air 3.3 Composition of the atmosphere 3.4 Static stability 3.5 The continuum hypothesis 3.6 Practical assumptions 3.7 Continuity equation Review questions 4 Fundamental forces 4.1 Newton's second law: F=ma 4.2 Body, surface, and line forces 4.3 Forces in an inertial reference frame 4.4 Forces in a rotating reference frame 4.5 The Navier-Stokes equations Review questions 5 Scale analysis 5.1 Dimensional homogeneity 5.2 Scales 5.3 Non-dimensional parameters 5.4 Scale analysis 5.5 The geostrophic approximation Review questions 6 Simple steady motion 6.1 Natural coordinate system 6.2 Balanced flow 6.3 The Boussinesq approximation 6.4 The thermal wind 6.5 Departures from balance Review questions 7 Circulation and vorticity 7.1 Circulation 7.2 Vorticity 7.3 Conservation of potential vorticity 7.4 An introduction to the vorticity equation Review questions 8 Simple wave motions 8.1 Properties of waves 8.2 Perturbation analysis 8.3 Planetary waves Review questions 9 Extra-tropical weather systems 9.1 Fronts 9.2 Frontal cyclones 9.3 Baroclinic instability Review questions Part II Atmospheric phenomena 10 Boundary layers 10.1 Turbulence 10.2 Reynolds decomposition 10.3 Generation of turbulence 10.4 Closure assumptions Review questions 11 Clouds and severe weather 11.1 Moist processes in the atmosphere 11.2 Air mass thunderstorms 11.3 Multi-cell thunderstorms 11.4 Supercell thunderstorms and tornadoes 11.5 Mesoscale convective systems Review questions 12 Tropical weather 12.1 Scales of motion 12.2 Atmospheric oscillations 12.3 Tropical cyclones Review questions 13 Mountain weather 13.1 Internal gravity waves 13.2 Flow over mountains 13.3 Downslope windstorms Review questions 14 Polar weather 14.1 Katabatic winds 14.2 Barrier winds 14.3 Polar lows Review questions 15 Epilogue: the general circulation 15.1 Fueled by the Sun 15.2 Radiative-convective equilibrium 15.3 The zonal mean circulation 15.4 The angular momentum budget 15.5 The energy cycle Appendix A - symbols Appendix Β - constants and units Bibliography Index

Note: Contents: Preface. - Acknowledgements. - 1 The meteorology of monsoons. - 1.1 Introduction. - 1.2 Meteorology of the tropics. - 1.3 The Indian Ocean monsoon system. - 1.4 Theory of monsoons. - 2 Controls on the Asian monsoon over tectonic timescales. - 2.1 Introduction. - 2.2 The influence of Tibet. - 2.3 Oceanic controls on monsoon intensity. - 2.4 Summary. - 3 Monsoon evolution on tectonic timescales. - 3.1 Proxies for monsoon intensity. - 3.2 Monsoon reconstruction by oceanic upwelling. - 3.3 Continental climate records. - 3.4 Eolian dust records. - 3.5 Evolving flora of East Asia. - 3.6 History of Western Pacific Warm Pool and the Monsoon. - 3.7 Summary. - 4 Monsoon evolution on orbital timescales. - 4.1 Introduction. - 4.2 Orbital controls on monsoon strength. - 4.3 Eolian records in North-east Asia. - 4.4 Monsoon records from cave deposits. - 4.5 Monsoon variability recorded in ice caps. - 4.6 Monsoon variability recorded in lacustrine sediments. - 4.7 Salinity records in marine sediments. - 4.8 Pollen records in marine sediments. - 4.9 Paleoproductivity as an indicator of monsoon strength. - 4.10 The Early Holocene monsoon. - 4.11 Mid–Late Holocene monsoon. - 4.12 Summary. - 5 Erosional impact of the Asian monsoon. - 5.1 Monsoon and oceanic strontium. - 5.2 Reconstructing erosion records. - 5.3 Reconstructing exhumation. - 5.4 Estimating marine sediment budgets. - 5.5 Erosion in Indochina. - 5.6 Erosion in other regions. - 5.7 Monsoon rains in Oman. - 5.8 Changes in monsoon-driven erosion on orbital timescales. - 5.9 Tectonic impact of monsoon strengthening. - 5.10 Climatic control over Himalaya exhumation. - 5.11 Summary. - 6 The Late Holocene monsoon and human society. - 6.1 Introduction. - 6.2 Holocene climate change and the Fertile Crescent. - 6.3 Holocene climate change and the Indus Valley. - 6.4 Holocene climate change and early Chinese cultures. - 6.5 Monsoon developments since 1000 AD. - 6.6 Monsoon and religion. - 6.7 Impacts of future monsoon evolution. - 6.8 Summary. - References. - Further reading. - Index.

Note: Contents Preface PART I Framework of Climate Science CHAPTER 1 Overview of Climate Science Climate and Climate Change 1-1 Geologic Time Tools of Climate Science: Temperature Scales 1-2 How This Book Is Organized Development of Climate Science 1-3 How Scientists Study Climate Change Overview of the Climate System 1-4 Components of the Climate System 1-5 Climate Forcing 1-6 Climate System Responses 1-7 Time Scales of Forcing Versus Response 1-8 Differing Response Rates and Climate-System Interactions 1-9 Feedbacks in the Climate System Climate Interactions and Feedbacks: Positive and Negative Feedbacks CHAPTER 2 Climate Archives, Data, and Models Climate Archives, Dating, and Resolution 2-1 Types of Archives 2-2 Dating Climate Records 2-3 Climatic Resolution Climatic Data 2-4 Biotic Data 2-5 Geological and Geochemical Data Climate Models 2-6 Physical Climate Models 2-7 Geochemical Models PART II Tectonic-Scale Climate Change CHAPTER 3 CO2and Long-Term Climate Greenhouse Worlds Faint Young Sun Paradox Carbon Exchanges Between Rocks and the Atmosphere 3-1 Volcanic Input of Carbon from Rocks to the Atmosphere 3-2 Removal of CO2 from the Atmosphere by Chemical Weathering Climatic Factors That Control Chemical Weathering Is Chemical Weathering Earth’s Thermostat? 3-3 Greenhouse Role of Water Vapor Is Life the Ultimate Control on Earth’s Thermostat? 3-4 Gaia Hypothesis Looking Deeper into Climate Science: Organic Carbon Subcycle Was There a “Thermostat Malfunction”? A Snowball Earth? CHAPTER Plate Tectonics and Long-Term Climate Plate Tectonics 4-1 Structure and Composition of Tectonic Plates 4-2 Evidence of Past Plate Motions Polar Position Hypothesis 4-3 Glaciations and Continental Positions Since 500 Myr Ago Modeling Climate on the Supercontinent Pangaea 4-4 Input to the Model Simulation of Climate on Pangaea Looking Deeper into Climate Science: Brief Glaciation 440 Myr Ago 4-5 Output from the Model Simulation of Climate on Pangaea Tectonic Control of CO2 Input: BLAG Spreading-Rate Hypothesis 4-6 Control of CO2 Input by Seafloor Spreading 4-7 Initial Evaluation of the BLAG Spreading Rate Hypothesis Tectonic Control of CO2Removal: Uplift-Weathering Hypothesis 4-8 Rock Exposure and Chemical Weathering 4-9 Case Study: The Wind River Basin of Wyoming 4-10 Uplift and Chemical Weathering 4-11 Case Study: Weathering in the Amazon Basin 4-12 Weathering: Both a Climate Forcing and a Feedback? CHAPTER 5 Greenhouse Climate What Explains the Warmth 100 Myr Ago? 5-1 Model Simulations of the Cretaceous Greenhouse 5-2 What Explains the Data-Model Mismatch? 5-3 Relevance of Past Greenhouse Climate to the Future Sea Level Changes and Climate 5-4 Causes of Tectonic-Scale Changes in Sea Level 5-5 Effect of Changes in Sea Level on Climate Looking Deeper into Climate Science: Calculating Changes in Sea Level Asteroid Impact Large and Abrupt Greenhouse Episode near 50 Myr Ago CHAPTER 6 From Greenhouse to Icehouse: The Last 50 Million Years Global Climate Change Since 50 Myr Ago 6-1 Evidence from Ice and Vegetation 6-2 Evidence from Oxygen Isotope Measurements 6-3 Evidence from Mg/Ca Measurements Do Changes in Geography Explain the Cooling? 6-4 Gateway Hypothesis 6-5 Assessment of Gateway Changes Hypotheses Linked to Changes in CO2 6-6 Evaluation of the BLAG Spreading Rate Hypothesis 6-7 Evaluation of the Uplift Weathering Hypothesis Climate DebateTiming of the Uplift in Western North America Future Climate Change at Tectonic Scales Looking Deeper into Climate Science: Organic Carbon: Monterrey Hypothesis PART III Orbital-Scale Climate Change CHAPTER 7 Astronomical Control of Solar Radiation Earth’s Orbit Today 7-1 Earth’s Tilted Axis of Rotation and the Seasons 7-2 Earth’s Eccentric Orbit: Distance Between Earth and Sun Long-Term Changes in Earth’s Orbit 7-3 Changes in Earth’s Axial Tilt Through Time Tools of Climate Science: Cycles and Modulation 7-4 Changes in Earth’s Eccentric Orbit Through Time 7-5 Precession of the Solstices and Equinoxes Around Earth’s Orbit Looking Deeper into Climate Science: Earth’s Precession as a Sine Wave Changes in Insolation Received on Earth 7-6 Insolation Changes by Month and Season 7-7 Insolation Changes by Caloric Seasons Searching for Orbital-Scale Changes in Climatic Records 7-8 Time Series Analysis 7-9 Effects of Undersampling Climate Records 7-10 Tectonic-Scale Changes in Earth’s Orbit CHAPTER 8 Insolation Control of Monsoons Monsoon Circulations 8-1 Orbital-Scale Control of Summer Monsoons Orbital-Scale Changes in North African Summer Monsoons 8-2 “Stinky Muds” in the Mediteranean 8-3 Freshwater Diatoms in the Tropical Atlantic 8-4 Upwelling in the Equatorial Atlantic Orbital Monsoon Hypothesis: Regional Assessment 8-5 Cave Speleothems in China and Brazil 8-6 Phasing of Summer Monsoons Looking Deeper into Climate Science: Insolation-Driven Monsoon Responses: Chronometer for Tuning Monsoon Forcing Earlier in Earth’s History 8-7 Monsoons on Pangaea 200 Myr Ago 8-8 Joint Tectonic and Orbital Control of Monsoons CHAPTER 9 Insolation Control of Ice Sheets Milankovitch Theory: Orbital Control of Ice Sheets Modeling the Behavior of Ice Sheets 9-1 Insolation Control of Ice Sheet Size 9-2 Ice Sheets Lag Behind Summer Insolation Forcing 9-3 Delayed Bedrock Response Beneath Ice Sheets Looking Deeper into Climate Science: Ice Volume Response to Insolation 9-4 Full Cycle of Ice Growth and Decay 9-5 Ice Slipping and Calving Northern Hemisphere Ice Sheet History 9-6 Ice Sheet History: δ18O Evidence 9-7 Confirming Ice Volume Changes: Coral Reefs and Sea Level Is Milankovich’s Theory the Full Answer? Looking Deeper into Climate Science: Sea Level on Uplifting Islands CHAPTER 10 Orbital-Scale Changes in Carbon Dioxide and Methane Ice Cores 10-1 Drilling and Dating Ice Cores 10-2 Verifying Ice-Core Measurements of Ancient Air 10-3 Orbital-Scale Carbon Transfers: Carbon Isotopes Orbital-Scale Changes in CO2 10-4 Where Did the Missing Carbon Go? 10-5 δ13C Evidence of Carbon Transfer How Did the Carbon Get into the Deep Ocean? 10-6 Increased CO2 Solubility in Seawater 10-7 Biological Transfer from Surface Waters A Closer Look at Climate Science: Using δ13C to Measure Carbon Pumping 10-8 Changes in Deep-Water Circulation Orbital-Scale Changes in CH4 Orbital-Scale Climatic Roles: CO2and CH4 CHAPTER 11 Orbital-Scale Interactions, Feedbacks, and Unsolved Problems Climatic Responses Driven by the Ice Sheets Mystery of the 41,000-Year Glacial World 11-1 Did Insolation Really Vary Mainly at 41,000 Years? 11-2 Interhemispheric Cancellation of 23,000-Year Ice Volume Responses? 11-3 CO2 Feedback at 41,000 Years? Mystery of the ~100,000-Year Glacial World 11-4 How Is the Northern Ice Signal Transferred South? Why did the Northern Ice Sheets Vary at ~100,000 Years? Looking Deeper into Climate Science: Link Between Forcing and the Time Constants of Ice Response 11-5 Ice Interactions with Bedrock 11-6 Ice Interactions with the Local Environment 11-7 Ice Interactions with Greenhouse Gases PART IV Deglacial Climate Change CHAPTER 12 Last Glacial Maximum Glacial World: More Ice, Less Gas 12-1 Project CLIMAP: Reconstructing the Last Glacial Maximum 12-2 How Large Were the Ice Sheets? 12-3 Glacial Dirt and Winds Testing Model Simulations Against Biotic Data 12-4 COHMAP: Data-Model Comparisons 12-5 Pollen: Indicator of Climate on the Continents 12-6 Using Pollen for Data-Model Comparisons Data-Model Comparisons of Glacial Maximum Climates 12-7 Model Simulations of Glacial Maximum Climates 12-8 Climate Changes near the Northern Ice Sheets 12-9 Climate Changes far from the Northern Ice Sheets How Cold Were the Glacial Tropics? 12-10 Evidence for a Small Tropical Cooling 12-11 Evidence for a Large Tropical Cooling 12-12 Actual Cooling Was Medium-Small CHAPTER 13 Climate During and Since the Last Deglaciation Fire and Ice: Shift in the Balance of Power 13-1 When Did the Ice Sheets Melt? 13-2 Coral Reefs and Rising Sea Level 13-3 Glitches in the Deglaciation: Deglacial Two-Step To

Note: Contents G01S91 Introduction to special section on changes in the Arctic freshwater system: identification, attribution, and impacts at local and global scales (DOI 10.1029/2007JG000615) / Charles Vörösmarty, Larry Hinzman, and Jonathan Pundsack Theme 1: Documenting the State and Trajectories of Change in Arctic Land-Ocean-Atmospheric Subsystems G04S54 The arctic freshwater system: Changes and impacts (DOI 10.1029/2006JG000353) / Daniel White, Larry Hinzman, Lilian Alessa, John Cassano, Molly Chambers, Kelly Falkner, Jennifer Francis, William J. Gutowski Jr., Marika Holland, R. Max Holmes, Henry Huntington, Douglas Kane, Andrew Kliskey, Craig Lee, James McClelland, Bruce Peterson, T Scott Rupp, Fiamma Straneo, Michael Steele, Rebecca Woodgate, Daqing Yang, Kenji Yoshikawa, and Tingjun Zhang G04S50 Recent Eurasian river discharge to the Arctic Ocean in the context of longer-term dendrohydrological records (DOI 10.1029/2006JG000333) / G. M. MacDonald, K. V. Kremenetski, L. C. Smitz, and H. G. Hidalgo G04S53 Temporal and spatial variations in maximum river discharge from a new Russian data set (DOI 10.1029/2006JG000352) / A. I. Shiklomanov, R. B. Lammers, M A. Rawlins, L. C. Smith, and T M. Pavelsky G04S47 Rising minimum daily flows in northern Eurasian rivers: A growing influence of groundwater in the high-latitude hydro logic cycle (DOI 10.1029/2006JG000327) / Laurence C. Smith, Tamlin M Pavelsky, Glen M. MacDonald, Alexander I. Shiklomanov, and Richard B. Lammers G04S59 Variability in river temperature, discharge, and energy flux from the Russian pan-Arctic landmass (DOI 10.1029/2006JG000370) / Richard B. Lammers, Jonathan W. Pundsack, and Alexander I. Shiklomanov G04S57 Nutrient (N, P) loads and yields at multiple scales and subbasin types in the Yukon River basin, Alaska (DOI 10.1029/2006JG000366) / Mark M. Dornblaser and Robert G. Striegl G04S60 Recent changes in nitrate and dissolved organic carbon export from the upper Kuparuk River, North Slope, Alaska (DOI 10.1029/2006JG000371) / J. W. McClelland, M. Stieglitz, Feifei Pan, R. M. Holmes, and B. J. Peterson Theme 2: Attribution: Sources ofHydrologic System Change in the Arctic G04S42 Response of Northern Hemisphere extratropical cyclone activity and associated precipitation to climate change, as represented by the Community Climate System Model (DOI 10.1029/2006JG000286) / Joel Finnis, Marika M. Holland, Mark C. Serreze, and John J. Cassano G04S49 Predicted changes in synoptic forcing of net precipitation in large Arctic river basins during the 21st century (DOI 10.1029/2006JG000332) / John J. Cassano, Petteri Uotila, Amanda H Lynch, and Elizabeth N. Cassano G04S45 A multimodel simulation of pan-Arctic hydrology (DOI 10.1029/2006JG000303) / A. G. Slater, T J. Bohn, J. L. McCreight, M C. Serreze, and D. P. Lettenmaier G04S43 Spring and aufeis (icing) hydrology in Brooks Range, Alaska (DOI 10.1029/2006JG000294) / Kenji Yoshikawa, Larry D. Hinzman, and Douglas L. Kane G04S46 Application ofTopoFlow, a spatially distributed hydrological model, to the Imnavait Creek watershed, Alaska (DOI 10.1029/2006JG000326) / Imke Schramm, Julia Boike, W Robert Bolton, and Larry D. Hinzman G04S44 Arctic tundra shrub invasion and soot deposition: Consequences for spring snowmelt and near-surface air temperatures (DOI 10.1029/2006JG000297) / John E. Strack, Roger A. Pielke Sr. , and Glen E. Liston G04S51 Chemical characteristics offulvic acids from Arctic surface waters: Microbial contributions and photochemical transformations (DOI 10.1029/2006JG000343) / Rose M Cory, Diane M. McKnight, Yu-Ping Chin, Penney Miller, and Chris L. Jaros G04S58 Impacts of climate warming and permafrost thaw on the riverine transport of nitrogen and phosphorus to the Kara Sea (DOI 10.1029/2006JG000369) / Karen E. Frey, James W McClelland, Robert M. Holmes, and Laurence C. Smith Theme 3: Impacts and Feedbacks from Arctic Freshwater Cycle Change G04S48 Relative sensitivity of the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation to river discharge into Hudson Bay and the Arctic Ocean (DOI 10.1029/2006JG000330) / Asa K Rennermalm, Eric F. Wood, Andrew J. Weaver, Michael Eby, and Stephen J. Dery G04S41 Arctic freshwater export in the 20th and 21st centuries (DOI 10.1029/2006JG000274) / Torben Koenigk, Uwe Mikolajewicz, Helmuth Haak, and Johann Jungclaus G04S55 Projected changes in Arctic Ocean freshwater budgets (DOI 10.1029/2006JG000354) / Marika M. Holland, Joel Finnis, Andrew P. Barrett, and Mark C. Serreze G04S52 Potential impacts of a changing Arcfic on community water sources on the Seward Peninsula, Alaska (DOI 10.1029/2006JG000351) / Molly Chambers, Daniel White, Robert Busey, Larry Hinzman, Lilian Alessa, and Andrew Kliskey There is no G04S56 in this volume. Author Index

Note: Contents Introduction / A.G. Georgiadi, A.N. Zolotokrylin CHAPTER 1. SUBARCTIC TUNDRA 1.1. Characteristics of subarctic polygon and a complex of field experimental investigations / A.G. Georgiadi 1.2. Landscapes and their characteristics 1.2.1. Types and distribution over territory / R.V. Desyatkin, L.D. Hinzman 1.2.2. Seasonal changes of spectral characteristics of landscapes by data of remote sensing measurements / V.B. Malyshev, N. S. Ozerov 1.3. The active layer of subarctic landscapes: typology and geography 1.3.1. Spatial variabi!ity of the active layer thickness / A.G. Georgiadi, V.G. Onischenko 1.3.2. Hydrophysical characteristics of the seasonal-melting layer / A.G. Georgiadi,V.G. Onischenko 1.4. Radiation and thermal characteristics of landscapes in the summer period 1.4.1. Systematization of experimental information on albedo and surface temperature / A.N. Zolotokrylin 1.4.2. Analysis of experimental information on the surface temperature / A.N. Zolotokrylin, V.V. Vinogradova 1.5. Heat exchange in tundra landscapes 1.5.1. Structure of heat exchange and its seasonal features / A.N. Zolotokrylin 1.5.2. Theoretical analysis of the process of heat transfer in the surface thawed layer of soil grounds / A.B. Kazansky, A.N. Zolotokrylin 1.6. Features of water regime and water exchange in tundra 1.6.1. Water regime and water balance of river basins by results of experimental measurements / A.G. Georgiadi 1.6.2. Interrelationship of underground and surface waters and underground alimentation of rivers in different year seasons / V.V. Shepelev CHAPTER 2. CENTRAL PLAIN TAIGA 2.1. Geographical characteristics of Spasskaya Pad polygon / A.N. Fedorov 2.2. Types of landscapes, their distribution over territory and seasonal dynamics / A.N. Fedorov, Ya. I. Torgovkin, S.P. Varlamov 2.3. Characteristics of the active layer and its physical properties 2.3.1. Spatial and seasonal variability of the active layer thickness 2.3.1.1. Inter-landscape variability of the seasonal-thawing layer thickness / I.S. Vasiliev 2.3.1.2. Variability of the active layer thickness at experimental sites / E.Yu. Gerasimov 2.3.1.3. Freezing of the active layer / P.Ya. Konstantinov 2.3.2. Physical properties of soils of the seasonal-thawing layer under larch forest / A.G. Georgiadi, V.G. Onischenko 2.3.3. Inter-landscape differences of physical properties of the active layer / P.Ya. Konstantinov, I.S. Ugarov, R.N. Argunov 2.3.4. Features of thermal conductivity of soil grounds / V.G. Onischenko, I.S. Lisker, A.G. Georgiadi 2.4. Radiation balance and thermal regime of landscapes 2.4.1. Radiation balance and its components / I.S. Ugarov 2.4.2. Temperature regime of the active layer / P.P. Gavriliev, I.S. Ugarov, P.V. Efremov 2.4.3. Temperature regime of the upper layers of perennially frozen grounds / P.Ya. Konstantinov 2.5.Heat exchange in permafrost landscapes of plain taiga / P.P. Gavriliev 2.6. Features of heat and moisture balance in taiga-alas landscapes / R.V. Desyatkin, I. Ishii, Kh. Yabuki, A.R. Desyatkin, P.P. Fedorov, T.N. Semenova 2.7. Turbulent energy- and moisture exchange in the atmospheric boundary layer (ABL) over thermally heterogeneous surface (over the Lena River lowland in the Yakutsk area) / M.A. Strunin 2.7.1. Some aspects of the atmospheric boundary layer (ABL) observations using the aircraft laboratory 2.7.2. Aircraft experiment of the atmospheric boundary layer (ABL) observations in the Yakutsk area 2.7.2.1. Aicraft laboratory IL-18d and its instruments for investigations of ABL 2.7.2.2. Scheme and conditions of the aircraft experiment 2.7.2.3. Radiosounding, surface measurements and satellite observations 2.7.2.4. Turbulence and turbulent fluxes data processing and analyzing 2.7.3. Some features of the convective boundary layer (CBL) development over thermally heterogeneous surface 2.7.3.1. Seasonal variability of turbulent fluxes 2.7.3.2. Fine spatial ABL structure 2.7.3.3. Conditions of appearance and development of the mesoscale thermal internal boundary layer (MTIBL) inside the CBL 2.7.3.4. Appearance of the local circulation over thermal mesoscale patch on the underlying surface 2.7.3.5. The local circulation and the problem of energy balance in the atmospheric boundary layer 2.7.3.6. Conditions of applying the scaling models for the CBL developing over heterogeneous underlying surface 2.7.3.7. The spectral structure of fluxes 2.7.3.8. Flux separating into turbulent and mesoscale portions 2.7.3.9. Separating approach models for mesoscale and turbulent fluxes in the CBL 2.7.3.10. Some f eatures of mesoscale and turbulent fluxes seasonal variations 2.7.4. The main results of observations of the CBL, developing over the thermally heterogeneous surface 2.8 Moisture exchange in plain taiga landscape 2.8.1. Moisture regime of the active layer 2.8.1.1. Landscape features of moisture dynamics of the active layer / P.P. Gavriliev, I.S. Ugarov, P.V. Efremov, R.N. Argunov 2.8.1.2. Spatial and temporal distribution of moisture reserves in the active layer / A.N. Fedorov, Ya.I.Torgovkin, R.N. Arguniov, P.P. Gavriliev, I.S. Vasiliev, J.S. Ugarov, P.V. Efremov 2.8.2. Interrelationship of underground and surface waters and underground alimentation of rivers in different seasons / V.V. Shepelev CHAPTER 3. SOUTHERN MOUNTAIN TAIGA 3.1. Natural conditions of the region / V.S. Vuglinsky, M.L. Markov 3.1.1. Climate 3.1.2. Relief and geological structure 3.1.3. Permafrost and hydrogeological conditions 3.1.4. Hydrography and hydrological conditions 3.1.5. Interrelationship of surface and underground waters, underground alimentation of rivers 3.1.5.1. lntraannual dynamics of water exchange of rivers with drained aquifers 3.1.5.2. Seasonal glaciation and its impact upon formation of river runoff 3.2. Results of study of regularities of heat- and moisture exchange at an experimental SHI Mogot polygon / N.G. Vasilenko, S.A. Zhuravin 3.2.1. General characteristics of the Mogot polygon and program of investigations 3.2.2. Landscape and soil characteristics of catchments of the Mogot polygon 3.2.2.1. Landscapes of the Mogot polygon 3.2.2.2. Landscape-hydrology complexes 3.2.2.3. Types of soils and their water physical characteristics 3.2.3. Features of climate in the region of the Mogot polygon 3.2.4. Radiation and heat balances 3.2.4.1. Radiation balance 3.2.4.2. Heat balance 3.2.5. Water balance 3.2.5.1. Methods of identification of the main components of water balance 3.2.5.2. Features of fo rmation of water balance elements 3.2.5.3. Results of calculation of water balances List of literature SUPPLEMENT TO PART 2.7. INSTRUMENTS AND METHODS FOR INVESTIGATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE USING THE AIRCRAFT LABORATORY / M.A. Strunin S.2.7.1. Methods of wind speed and direction, air temperature and humidity and turbulence measurements based on aircraft data S.2.7.2. Aircraft laboratory IL-18d and its instruments for investigation of the atmosphere S.2.7.3. Database of aircraft observations and preliminary data processing S.2.7.4. Errors of turbulent fluxes calculations based on aircraft data S.2.7.5. Methods of spectral analysis of turbulence data S.2.7.6. Calculations of spectral characteristics of fluctuations based on Fourier analysis S.2.7.7. Using the wavelet-transformations for the spectral analysis List of literature to Supplement 2.7 , In kyrillischer Schrift , Einführung und Inhaltsverzeichnis in englischer Sprache

Note: Contents Preface 1 The evidence for cryospheric change 1.1 Introduction 1.2 The geomorphic and hydrologic effects of cryospheric change 1.3 Sub-arctic and alpine hydrology 1.4 Glacier loss and mountain permafrost 1.5 Permafrost 1.6 The carbon balance of the cryosphere 1.7 River and lake ice break-up and freeze-up 1.8 Ocean circulation 1.9 The mass balance of the polar ice sheets 1.10 Sea level 1.11 Importance of sea ice. 1.12 Ecological impacts 1.13 Socio-economic effects 1.14 Conclusions (Text word count-including figure captions and tables but excluding references- 9,015) 2 The monitoring of cryospheric change 2.1 Introduction 2.2 In situ measurements 2.2.1 Land surface air temperature 2.2.2 Terrestrial snow and snow on sea ice 2.2.3 Sea ice 2.2.4 Ice sheets and alpine glaciers 2.2.5 Permafrost and seasonally frozen ground 2.2.6 River runoff 2.2.7 River and lake ice freeze-up and break-up 2.3 Conclusions 3 Processes of cryospheric change 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Snow and ice as energy regulators 3.2.1 The energetics of the snow surface 3.2.2 The energetics of the snowpack 3.2.3 The energetics of glaciers 3.2.4 The energetics of sea ice and various terrain types 3.2.5 Permafrost 3.3 Snow and ice reservoir functions 3.3.1 Mass budget for snow 3.3.2 Mass balance for glacier ice 3.3.3 The mass balance of an ice sheet 3.3.4 Mass balance of sea ice 3.4 Snowfall 3.4.1 Interception by vegetation 3.4.2 Snow accumulation 3.4.3 Snow cover structure 3.5 Snow avalanches 3.6 Snow melt, runoff and streamflow generation 3.7 Snow chemistry 3.8 Snow ecology 3.9 Glacier melt 3.10 Formation of an ice cover 3.11 River and lake ice 3.12 Sediment budgets 4 Patterns of the contemporary cryosphere at local to global scales 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Remote sensing observations 4.3 Land and sea surface temperature 4.3.1 Terrestrial snow and snow on sea ice 4.3.2 Sea ice 4.3.3 Ice sheets & glaciers: estimation of volume 4.3.4 Ice sheets & glaciers: mass balance components 4.3.5 Permafrost 4.3.6 River runoff 4.3.7 River and lake ice freeze-up/break-up 4.4 Numerical Models 4.5 Conclusions: validation, coordinated projects and climate data records 5 The evidence for past cryospheric changes 5.1 Introduction 5.2 The uniqueness of the Quaternary Period 5.3. Initiation of glacial ages 5.4 Reconstructing extent of glacial environments 5.5 Extreme events 5.6 Ice sheet modelling 5.6.1 The Antarctic Ice Sheet 5.6.2 Greenland 5.6.3 North America: Innuitian, Laurentide and Cordilleran ice sheets 5.6.4 British Isles, Scandinavian and Barents ice sheets 5.6.5 The Patagonian and New Zealand ice caps 5.7 Non-glacial Quaternary environments 5.7.1 Late Quaternary permafrost in North America and Europe 5.7.2 Treeline variations 5.7.3 Climatic snowline 5.7.4 Glacier fluctuations 5.7.5 Paraglaciation 6 The transience of the cryosphere and transitional landscapes 6.1 Introduction 6.1.1 The landscape as palimpsest 6.2 Glacial landscapes: macro scale 6.2.1 Cirque landscapes 6.2.2 Fjord and strandflat landscapes 6.3 Periglacial landscapes: macro-scale 6.4 Paraglacial landscapes: macro-scale 6.5 Glacial landscapes: medium-scale 6.5.1 The transition from glacial to fluvial dominance 6.6 Proglacial landscapes: medium-scale 6.6.1 Glacifluvial landforms 6.6.2 The Channeled Scablands 6.6.3 Sub-glacial channels 6.6.4 Sub-glacial, ice-marginal and supraglacial sediment-landform associations 6.7 Periglacial landscapes: medium scale 6.7.1 The transition from periglacial to fluvial dominance 6.8 Paraglacial landscapes: medium-scale 6.9 Glacial landscapes: local-scale 6.9.1 Primary glacigenic deposits 6.9.2 Small scale erosional forms 6.10 Proglacial landscapes: local-scale 6.11 Periglacial landscapes: local scale 6.13 Paraglacial landscapes: local-scale 6.13 Landscape resistance, collapse and recovery 6.14 Transitional landscapes at Quaternary, Holocene and Anthropocene timescales 7 Cryospheric change and vulnerability at Quaternary, Holocene and Anthropocene time scales 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Panarchy 7.2.1 Panarchy, sustainability and transformability 7.2.2 Collapse and the vulnerability of socio-economic systems 7.3 Changing ice cover and biomes since the Last Glacial Maximum 7.3.1 The Last Glacial Maximum 7.3.2 The Holocene Optimum 7.4 The first explorers in North America 7.5 Implications of cryospheric change/collapse 7.5.1 Snow quantity 7.5.2 Snow quality 7.5.3 River and lake ice 7.5.4 Permafrost 7.5.5 Glaciers 7.5.6 River basins 7.5.7 Sea ice 7.5.8 Ice sheets 7.5.9 Sea level change 7.5.10 Carbon sequestration 7.5.11 Vegetation 7.5.12 Polar bears 7.5.13 Human health 7.5.14 Persistent organic pollutants 7.5.15 Socio-cultural conditions and health status 7.5.16 Livelihoods and socio-economic conditions 7.5.17 Governance 7.6 Concluding thoughts References Index

Note: Contents Preface Acknowledgments Chapter 1 Planet Earth and Earth systems 1.1 Comparative planetology 1.2 Unique Earth 1.3 Earth systems snapshots 1.4 Measuring Earth 1.5 Whole Earth 1.6 Subtle, interactive Earth Further reading Chapter 2 Matters of state and motion 2.1 Matters of state 2.2 Thermal matters 2.3 Quantity of matter 2.4 Motion matters: kinematics 2.5 Continuity: mass conservation of fluids Further reading Chapter 3 Forces and dynamics 3.1 Quantity of motion: momentum 3.2 Acceleration 3.3 Force, work, energy, and power 3.4 Thermal energy and mechanical work 3.5 Hydrostatic pressure 3.6 Buoyancy force 3.7 Inward acceleration 3.8 Rotation, vorticity, and Coriolis force 3.9 Viscosity 3.10 Viscous force 3.11 Turbulent force 3.12 Overall forces of fluid motion 3.13 Solid stress 3.14 Solid strain 3.15 Rheology Further reading Chapter 4 Flow, deformation, and transport 4.1 The origin of large-scale fluid flow 4.2 Fluid flow types 4.3 Fluid boundary layers 4.4 Laminar flow 4.5 Turbulent flow 4.6 Stratified flow 4.7 Particle settling 4.8 Particle transport by flows 4.9 Waves and liquids 4.10 Transport by waves 4.11 Granular gravity flow 4.12 Turbidity flows 4.13 Flow through porous and granular solids 4.14 Fractures 4.15 Faults 4.16 Solid bending, buckling, and folds 4.17 Seismic waves 4.18 Molecules in motion: kinetic theory, heat conduction, and diffusion 4.19 Heat transport by radiation 4.20 Heat transport by convection Further reading Chapter 5 Inner Earth processes and systems 5.1 Melting, magmas, and volcanoes 5.2 Plate tectonics Further reading Chapter 6 Outer Earth processes and systems 6.1 Atmosphere 6.2 Atmosphere-ocean interface 6.3 Atmosphere-land interface 6.4 Deep ocean 6.5 Shallow ocean 6.6 Ocean-land interface: coasts 6.7 Land surface Further reading Appendix Brief mathematical refresher or study guide Cookies Index